Indian Literature

Ancient literature

Sanskrit literature

Vedic Sanskrit and Classical Sanskrit are two branches of the Indo-Aryan language. Vedic Sanskrit includes the Vedic Samhitas , Brahmanas , and Upanishads. Classical Sanskrit includes epics and others. Although spiritual subjects were initially written in Sanskrit, later excellent works were written in many fields, including literature and science.

Vedic literature

We get our knowledge about Vedic culture mainly from Vedic literature. The Vedas were composed by many writers. It is believed that most of the texts were composed even before the time of Buddha. The Vedas were transmitted orally from generation to generation. Naturally, there were changes and additions to them. The Vedas, which were transmitted orally, were put into written form centuries later. Vedic literature was composed in Sanskrit. They can be divided into two categories: Shruti and Samriti.

Shruti

The Vedic literature, which is the central text of Hinduism, is called Shruti literature. Classical Shruti literature includes the four Vedas, the Upanishads, the Aranyakas, and the Brahmanas.

Smriti

Unlike Shruti literature , Smriti literature is literature written after the Vedic period. Smriti literature means literature that is remembered. Classic works in this category include the Puranas , Upaveda , Tantras , Itihasas, etc.

Vedas

The Vedas are accepted by both the West and the East as the oldest books known to mankind. There are four Vedas, namely , Rig , Sama , Yajur and Atharva. Prof. Max Muller concludes that the Rigveda was composed between 1500 and 1200 BC. The other Vedas are believed to have been composed between 1200 and 800 BC . According to Lokmanya Tilak , the Rigveda was composed before 6000 BC . The Brahmanas and Aranyakas were composed between 800 and 600 BC . These are written in connection with each Veda. They explain the importance of sacrifices and yagnas.

Rigveda

The Rig Veda is the only Veda that existed in the Early Vedic period. It is the most important Veda socially and religiously. The word ' Rig' is derived from the root ' Rich ', which means to praise . It is the oldest religious text in the world. The Rig Veda is the oldest work in Sanskrit and the first book in the Indo-European languages. The Rig Veda is the basis of all Vedic literature. It mainly contains verses praising different deities. It represents a stage in the development of the human mind, which personifies natural phenomena as deities. The Rig Veda has 10 mandalas. The Rig Veda is a collection of 1028 sukthas ( 10,500 mantras). The Rig Veda, which begins with ' Agnimeela Purohitham ' , ends with ' Yatha Vassusahasati ' . The mantras were mainly created by the sages. The seven main sages were Atri , Kanva , Vasishtha , Vishwamitra , Jamadagni , Gautama , and Bharadwaja. The Gayatri Mantra is included in the third mandala of the Rigveda. It is believed that Vishwamitra composed the Gayatri Mantra. It is dedicated to the goddess Savitri. According to Hinduism, the Gayatri Mantra is a mantra that is received only as a Gurupadesa during Upanayana. The most important god in the Rigveda is Indra. He is mentioned as the god of war. The largest number of mantras in the Rigveda are dedicated to Indra. Indra was called Purandara, meaning the destroyer of fortresses. In Indian mythology, Indra, the king of the gods, is the god of rain and thunder. During the Rigveda, Varuna was considered the god of water. The word Om is used 1028 times in the Rigveda. Vasishtha and Vishwamitra were two important priests who lived during the Rigveda period. They are believed to have been the gurus of the Surya and Chandra dynasties respectively.

Samaveda

The Samaveda is the first book on music. It is also called the source of Indian music. It has 1549 verses. About 75 verses are taken from the Rigveda.

Yajurveda

It has 1875 verses. The Yajurveda is divided into two, Krishna Yajurveda (black) and Shukla Yajurveda (white). The mantras and verses in Krishna Yajurveda are not arranged in a systematic manner like in Shukla Yajurveda, hence the name ' Krishna ' ( black - vagueness) Yajurveda. The Yajurveda is the only Veda in prose form. The Rigveda , Samaveda , and Yajurveda are collectively known as the Vedatrayi. Later, the Atharva Veda was also included in this group.

Atharva Veda

The Atharva Veda , also known as the Brahma Veda, is the last of the Vedas to be composed . It is divided into 20 cantos. It is the Veda with the fewest verses, with 730 verses. Most of these verses are a collection of mantras used to ward off evil spirits. The Atharva Veda has two distinct sections - the Paipalada and the Saunakiya. The verse in this Veda is ' War begins in the mind of man ' . Historically and sociologically, the Atharva is the most important Veda after the Rigveda. It is also considered the most useful Veda.

Later Vedas

The Saint Avesta is the holy book of the Parsis , similar to the Rigveda . The word Veda means knowledge. The Mandukya Sukta in the Rigveda is related to education. The ' Purusha Sukta ' is in the tenth mandala of the Rigveda. Based on this, the Chaturvarnya system came into existence. The Chaturvarnya categories are Brahmins , Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras. The Purushasukta states that Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas , and Shudras were created from the head , arms , thighs, and feet of Lord Vishnu , respectively . The Samaveda , Yajurveda , and Atharvaveda are the later Vedas.

Brahmanas

Brahmanas are prose commentaries supplementing the Vedas. Brahmanas explain the verses of the Vedas. It can be said that these deal with the science of sacrifice. They describe in detail the various sacrifices, rituals and their esoteric meanings. There are many Brahmanas for each Vedas.

Upanishads

The Upanishads are the philosophical texts of Hinduism. They are considered the source of Indian philosophy. The word ' Upanishad ' means ' to sit near someone ' . This refers to a student sitting at the feet of his guru to learn knowledge. Eventually, the word was used to refer to the secret knowledge that the guru imparted to his chosen students. The Upanishads envision the goal of life, which is to attain salvation through meditation and self-control. The Upanishads were composed around 600 B.C. They are believed to be 108 in number. Twelve of them are of greater importance. The Upanishads are commonly known as the ' Vedantas ' . The largest Upanishad is the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. The shortest is the Mandukya Upanishad. The oldest Upanishads are the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad and the Chandogya Upanishad. The national motto of India , ' Satyameva Jayate ' ( Truth alone triumphs), is from the Mundaka Upanishad. The Upanishads are the foundation of later Indian philosophy, which influenced thinkers such as Shankaracharya , Ramanujan , Ramakrishna Paramahamsa , and Aurobindo Ghosh. The phrase ' Utishthatha , Jagratha ' is found in the Kathopanishad , the phrase ' Tamasoma Jyotirgamaya ' is found in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, and the phrase ' Matrudevo Bhava ' is found in the Taittiriya Upanishad. The dialogue between Yama and Nachiketa is found in the Kathopanishad. The first mention of the Varnashrama is found in the Jabala Upanishad. The first mention of Lord Krishna is found in the Chandogya Upanishad. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad is an Upanishad that refers to the transmigration of the soul.

Upanishad translation

The Mughal prince Darashukko ( 1657) translated the Upanishads ( 50 in number) into Persian . Persian was the first foreign language into which the Upanishads were translated. The Upanishads were translated into English by a German scholar named Max Muller. The Upanishads are thought to have been divided into four great maxims: Prajnaam Brahma (Aitareya) , Aham Brahmasmi (Brhadaranyaka) , Ayamatma Brahma (Mandukya), and Tattvamasi (Chandogye).

Sutras

The sutras originated in oral traditions. Memorization and recitation were the main methods. Examples of sutras include Patanjali's Yoga Sutras , Brahma Sutras , various Buddhist Sutras , and Jain Sutras. The Shrauta Sutras provide instructions on how to perform three types of sacrifices. The Grihya Sutras describe the rituals that a person must follow from birth to death. Marriage was classified into eight types. These were Brahma , Prajapatya , Arsha , Deva , Gandharva , Asura , Rakshasa , and Paishacha. Of these, the first four were considered the best. The five sacrifices to be performed by the householder were Brahma Yajna , Pitriya Yajna , Deva Yajna , and Ati Yajna. It was decreed that one should pass through four stages of monastic life. These stages are celibacy , householdership , wilderness life , and sannyasa. The stages of monastic life are: celibacy (up to 25 years of age) , the exemplary householder ( 25 to 50 years of age) , the wilderness life ( 50 to 75 years of age) , the solitary monk ( 75 to 100 years of age), the monk who renounces all worldly pursuits and wanders in search of liberation . The Dharma Sutras are generally concerned with rules , etiquette , and rituals. The main authors of the Dharma Sutras are Gautama , Baudhayana , Vasishtha , and Apastamba. The Sulvasutra prescribes various dimensions for the construction of altars.

Aranyakas

The word Aranyaka means ' forest ' . These are called ' forest texts ' . They were written mainly for ascetics and students living in the forests. They are the last parts of the Brahmanas or their appendices. The Aranyakas, which are works between the Brahmanas and the Upanishads, aim to help those who go to the Aranyakas for the purpose of attaining spiritual knowledge. The Aranyakas are not rules for performing sacrifices or explanations of rituals.

Puranas

It is believed that Veda Vyasa composed all 18 Puranas. In addition to the 18 Mahapuranas, there are also 18 Upapuranas. Brahmapurana , Bhagavatapurana , Markandeyapurana , Vishnupurana , Naradiyapurana , Padmapurana , Vayupurana , Agnipurana , Bhavishyapurana , Brahmavaivarthakapurana , Lingapurana , Varahapurana , Skandapurana, Vamanapurana , Kurmapurana , Matsyapurana , Garudapurana , and Brahmandapurana. The most important Puranas are Vishnupurana , Vayupurana , Matsyapurana , Brahmapurana , and Bhavishyapurana. The largest Purana is Skandapurana. It has over 80,000 verses. The second largest is the Padma Purana with 55,000 verses. The Skanda Purana is considered the second largest book in ancient Indian literature. The Markandeya Purana is the shortest Purana. The sub-puranas according to the Devi Bhagavatam are - Sanakkumara , Narasimha , Naradayam , Shiva , Durvasasam , Kapila , Vamana , Aushanassam , Varuna , Kalika , Bhargava , Nandi , Sauram , Sambam , Maheswaram , Parasara , Ganesha , and Vasishtha.

Vedangas

The Vedangas are supplementary works to the Vedas. They are believed to have developed towards the end of the Vedic period , in the middle of the first millennium BCE or later. There are six of them. They deal with the rules for the pronunciation of shiksha and the structure of the Chanda mantras. The third is grammar. The Kalpa deals with rituals. It is the most important of the Vedangas. The Kalpa is divided into four sections: Srautasutra , Grihyasutra , Dharmasutra , and Sulvasutra. The content of the Nirukta is the origin of words. Astrology deals with luminous objects. The Vedangas are first mentioned in the Mundako Upanishad. The author of the Nirukta is Yasaka. The Vedangas have played a crucial role in maintaining the purity and integrity of the Vedic tradition for centuries.

Indian Philosophies

Indian philosophies can be considered to be nine in number. There are six theistic philosophies (those that accept the Vedic principles) and three atheistic philosophies (those that do not accept the Vedic principles). The theistic philosophies are Nyaya , Vaishesika , Samkhya , Yoga , Purvamimamsa , and Uttaramimamsa (Vedanta). These are called the Shaddarshans. Buddhism , Jainism , and Charvaka (Barhaspatyam or Lokayatam) are atheistic philosophies. Uttaramimamsa is called Jnanakanda and Purvamimamsa is called Karmakanda. Kapila Maharishi is the founder of Samkhya, Jaimini is the founder of Purvamimamsa, Gautama is the founder of Nyayadarshan, Kanada is the founder of Vaishesika philosophies, Patanjali is the founder of Yoga, and Badarayana is the founder of Uttaramimamsa. The Nyaya Sutra is the authoritative text of Nyayadarshan. The authoritative text of Vaisheshika philosophy is the Vaisheshika Sutras. The Mimamsa Sutra is the authoritative text of Purvamimamsa, the Samkhya Sutra is the authoritative text of Samkhya philosophy, the Yoga Sutra is the authoritative text of Yoga philosophy, and the Brahma Sutra is the authoritative text of Uttara mimamsa. All these philosophies propagate the values of life. The oldest of the six philosophies is Samkhya. Vaisheshika philosophy is known as the Indian theory of particles.

Upavedas

Although the Vedic texts and philosophies claim to be inspired by the Vedas, they are not included under the umbrella of the core Vedic literature. The Upavedas explain Vedic philosophy. The Gandharva Veda, a sub-veda of the Sama Veda, deals with music. The Dhanurveda, a sub-veda of the Yajur Veda, deals with the science of astronomy. The Silpa Veda (Sthapaty Veda), a sub-veda of the Atharva Veda, deals with architecture, and Ayurveda deals with medicine. The Trimurti of Ayurveda are known as Charaka , Sushruta , and Vagbhata. The word Ayurveda refers to life and health. Although they are not part of the Vedic literature, the Upavedas are held in great sacredness.

Classical Sanskrit

Vedic Sanskrit and Classical Sanskrit are two branches of the Indo-Aryan language. Vedic Sanskrit includes the Vedic Samhitas , Brahmanas , and Upanishads. Classical Sanskrit includes the Itihasas, etc. The various works written in Classical Sanskrit and their authors are given below.

1. Ramayana - Valmiki

2. Mahabharata - Vyasa

3. Charaka Samhita - Sage Charaka

4. Amarakosham - Amarasingha

5. Ashtadhyayi - Panini

6. Mahabhashyam - Patanjali

7. Arthashastra - Kautilya

8. Gita Govindam - Jayadevan

9. Natyashastra - Bharatamuni

10. Ashtanga Hridayam - Vagbhata

11. Panchatantra - Vishnu Sharma

12. Aryabhata - Aryabhata

13. Lilavati - Bhaskaran II

14. Abhijnanasakuntalam , Malavikagnimitram , Kumarasambhavam - Kalidasa

15. Buddhacharitam - Ashvaghosha

16. Swapna Vasava Datta , Urubhangam , Pancharatra , Charudatta , Duthaghatotkacha , Avimaragam , Balacharitam , Karnabharam , Abhishekanatakam , Pratimaanatakam , Duthavakyam - Bhasan

17. Mrichakadika - Shudra

18. Shatakatrayam - Bhartruhari

19. Kadambari , Harshacharitam - Banabhatta

20. Surya Dashakam - Mayurabhattan

21. Shishupalavadham - Magha

22. Janaki Haranam - Kumaradasan

23. Kavya Darshan - Dandi

24. Vasavadatta - Subandhu

25. Venisamharam - Bhattanarayanan

26. Malathimadhavam - Bhavabhuti

27. Kathasarit Sagaram - Somadevabhattan

Epics

The epics Mahabharata and Ramayana provide valuable information about ancient Indian society.

Ramayana

The Ramayana, known as the original poem, was composed by the sage Valmiki. Valmiki's old name was Ratnakaran. He was a wild man who changed his mind and became an ascetic. Due to his long penance , a thicket or Valmika formed around him. Thus, he got the name Valmiki. Ramayana means the journey of Rama. The Ramayana consists of 24,000 verses in 500 cantos . It is believed that this is the first work in poetic form. Therefore, it is also known as the original poem. The parts of the Ramayana are known as kandas. The seven kandas of the Ramayana are Balakanda , Ayodhyakanda , Aranyakanda , Kishkindhakanda , Sundarakanda , Yuddhakanda , and Uttarakanda. The plot of the Ramayana is the war between Sri Rama, the king of Kosala, and Ravana, the ruler of Lanka.

Mahabharata

It is the largest epic in the world. The Mahabharata is four times the length of the Ramayana. It is also called the longest poem in the world. Following Shankaracharya's opinion that ' Itihasas ' are a branch of poetry dedicated to the common people who cannot comprehend the Vedas , the Mahabharata is also called the Panchamaveda (fifth Veda). The length of the Mahabharata is ten times that of the Greek epics the Iliad and the Odyssey combined. The Mahabharata, which has about one lakh verses, has 18 chapters. The first chapter is the Adiparva. The last is the Swargarohanaparva . The Mahabharata also has an additional section called Harivamsha. The old name of the Mahabharata is Jaya Samhita. The Mahabharata is also called the Shatasahasa Samhita (Shatam means one hundred , Sahasram means one thousand , i.e. one hundred thousand or one lakh). The central theme of the epic is the eighteen-day Kurukshetra War between the Kauravas and the Pandavas. In this great war , almost all the contemporary kings of India took sides. As a result, the Kauravas were completely annihilated and the Pandavas finally gained supremacy. Vyasa is the author of the Mahabharata. The son of Parasara Muni and Satyavati, Vyasa was also known as Krishnadvaipayana. Vyasa was born on an island in the Yamuna River. He was called Veda Vyasa because he divided the Vedas.

The 18 Parvas of the Mahabharata

The Adiparva , the Sabhaparva , the Vanaparva , the Virataparva , the Udyogaparva , the Bhishmaparva , the Dronaparva , the Karnaparva , the Salyaparva , the Sauptikaparva , the Streeparva , the Shantiparva , the Anusasanaparva , the Asvamedhikaparva , the Ashramavasikaparva , the Mausalaparva , the Mahaprasthanikaparva , and the Swararohanaparva.

The largest of the parvas of the Mahabharata is the twelfth parva, Shantiparva, and the smallest is the seventeenth parva, Mahaprasthanikaparva. The Mahabharata was first translated into Tamil by Perumthevanar. Kisari Mohan Ganguly was the first to translate the Mahabharata completely from Sanskrit into English.

Bhagavad Gita

The Bhagavad Gita is known as the soul of the Mahabharata. It has 700 verses in 18 chapters . The Bhagavad Gita is the chapters from 25 to 42 of the Bhishma Parva of the Mahabharata. The theme of the Gita is philosophy. Before the Kurukshetra War , it was written as advice given by Lord Krishna to Arjuna, who was reluctant to fight the Kaurava army, which included his relatives, to make him war-hardened. The chapters of the Bhagavad Gita are known as yoga. The first six chapters are known as karma yoga, the middle six chapters are bhakti yoga, and the last six chapters are jnana yoga. The first chapter is venge yoga. The last chapter is moksha-upadesha yoga. The Bhagavad Gita is described as the Upanishad of Upanishads and the science of liberation. The Bhagavad Gita is also called the Geeta Upanishad .

Indian philosophy

During the Vedic period, religious beliefs and practices underwent a massive transformation. The simplicity of religious worship was lost and religion became more complex. The ' Yaga Sanskara ' became the cornerstone of religion and there were mantras along with the sacrifices. Many other rituals also emerged during this period. All these sacrifices and mantras were invented and developed by the Brahmin priests. Only the trained priests could perform the sacrifices and rituals. Therefore, the monopoly of the priesthood was in the hands of the Brahmins. The sacrifices of this period were not simple offerings. They were very expensive. Cows , gold , cloth and horses had to be given to the priest as dakshina for the sacrifice. During this period, there were changes in the nature and character of the gods. Indra and Agni, the main gods of the Rig Vedic period, lost their previous importance. Prajapati, the creator, was the first among the gods. Vishnu and Rudra became the main gods. Vishnu began to be seen as the savior of the universe.

Principles of Buddhism

The Buddha proposed a religious doctrine that was in harmony with the realities of life. They were principles related to the problems of this world. The basic principles of Buddhism are known as the ' Aryasatya ' ( Four Noble Truths). They are as follows.

(1) Life is sad.

(2) Desires are the cause of suffering.

(3) We can eliminate sorrow by subduing desires.

(4) The Eightfold Path should be adopted to eliminate suffering.

Right view , right decision , right speech , right livelihood , right action , right effort , right mindfulness , and right meditation are the eightfold path suggested by the Buddha for the cessation of suffering. These were recommended as the path to liberation (nirvana). The eightfold path was a middle path. Because it was a path between severe austerities and excessive pleasures. The Buddha believed in the theory of karma. He suggested that karma determines a person's fate. Therefore, he asked to lead a pure life for the attainment of liberation. Another fundamental principle of Buddhism is non-violence. The Buddha advised not to harm or kill any living being. The Buddha neither accepted nor rejected the concept of God. Like the Jain teachers, the Buddha also prepared a code of conduct for his followers. It prescribes five things: ( 1) Do not covet the property of others ( 2) Do not be violent ( 3) Do not use intoxicants ( 4) Do not lie ( 5) Do not commit adultery.

Buddhism was liberal and democratic. It emphasized equality. The admission of women into the Sangam was an effort to implement equality. The Buddha also strongly opposed the varna system, which undermined the concept of equality. Buddhism put forward a philosophy based on moral virtues such as truth, justice, obedience, charity, and kindness.

Jainism principles

The five fundamental principles of Jainism are non-violence , non-sin , non-attachment , truthfulness , and celibacy. The first four principles are attributed to Parshvanath and the fifth was added by Mahavira. The other important principles of Jainism are as follows:

• Vedic rituals are ineffective.

• God is an illusion. Therefore, there is no benefit in worshipping and performing rituals.

• Karma is the root cause of birth , death , sorrow , and suffering. Nirvana (salvation) is liberation from birth, death, and suffering. To attain salvation, one's actions must be pure.

• Karma can be purified by practicing the ' Tri Ratnas ' . The Tri Ratnas are right knowledge , right faith , and right conduct.

• Liberation can also be achieved through asceticism , self-mortification , and death by starvation.

Theistic Philosophy ( Shad Darshanas )

1. Nyaya Darshan

The Nyaya Sutras of Gautama (3rd century BC) are its ancient authoritative text. Vachaspati Misra (9th century) and Udayanacharya (10th century) are prominent teachers associated with Nyaya philosophy.

2. Vaisheshika Darshan

It was developed by Kanada (6th century BC). His Vaisheshika Sutras are the authoritative documents for it. The Tarka Samgrah written by the scholar Annambhatta, combining the Nyaya and Vaisheshika philosophies, is famous. The Paramanu Siddhanta or atomic theory is developed in the Vaisheshika philosophy.

3. Samkhya Darshan

Scholars say that the oldest of the Shaddarshans is the Samkhya Darshan. The founder of this philosophy is a teacher named Kapila (6th century BC). Kapila's Samkhya Sutras are its first authoritative document. Ishvarakrishna's ( 3rd - 4th century AD) Samkhyakarika is its authoritative text.

4. Yoga Darshan

The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali ( 150 BC ) are the first authoritative text on yoga philosophy. The commentary on the Yoga Sutras by Vyasa (not the author of the Mahabharata) is famous. The Yoga Sutras have four sections: Samadhi , Sadhana , Vibhuti , and Kaivalya. It contains 195 sutras. It describes the Ashtanga Yoga. The eight limbs are Yama , Niyama , Pranayama , Dharana , Dhyana , and Samadhi.

5. Purvamimamsa

Jaimini (1st century BC) is the founder of this philosophy. Jaimini's Mimamsa Sutras (Jaiminea Sutra) are its fundamental text. The Jaimini Sutras consist of twelve chapters and 2644 sutras. Sabara , Kumarilabhatta and Prabhakaramishra are the authoritative scholars associated with this philosophy.

6. Uttaramimansa (Vedanta)

The authoritative work of Badarayana is the Vedanta Sutras (also known as Brahma Sutra and Badarayana Sutra). There are more than twelve commentators on the Brahma Sutra, including Shankaracharya and Ramanujacharya. Shankaracharya's Advaita , Bhaskaracharya's Bheda Darshan , Ramanujacharya's Vishishtadvaita , Nimbarka's Dvaita Darshan , Madhvacharya's Dvaita Darshan , and Vallabhacharya's Shuddhadvaita Darshan are the different branches of Vedanta. Of these, Advaita is the most popular. Shankaracharya gave clear guidance and structure to Advaita. He expounded Advaita philosophy through his commentaries on the Brahma Sutra , Bhagavad Gita , and the Upanishads. Prominent contributors to Advaita philosophy include Sriharsha (12th century) , Chitsukhacharya (13th century) , Vidyaranya (14th century) , and Madhusudana Saraswati (16th century).

Atheist Philosophy

1. Buddhism

The teachings of Gautama (6th century BC) after his enlightenment and becoming the Buddha are the basis of Buddhism. The teachings of Buddhism are collected in the Tripitakas in the Pali language. The Tripitakas consist of three parts: the Vinaya Pitaka , the Sutta Pitaka , and the Abhidhamma Pitaka. Buddhism has two major schools, the Hinayana and the Mahayana. Among these, the Hinayana has two sects, the Vaibhasikas and the Sautrantikas. The Mahayana, on the other hand, has two divisions, the Yoga and the Madhyamaka. The Yoga is called the doctrine of knowledge, and the Madhyamaka is called the doctrine of emptiness. The Four Noble Truths discovered by the Buddha are the basic principles of Buddhism.

2. Jainism

A philosophical project developed by Jina (6th century BC). When Vardhaman, a young king of Magadha, became Kevali (omniscience) through penance, he was honored by the people with the epithets Jina (spiritually victorious) and Mahavira . He said that he was only the interpreter of the religion of the 23 Tirthankaras who had lived before him . The first of the Tirthankaras was Rishabhadeva and the twenty-third was Parsvanath. Mahavira was the twenty-fourth Tirthankara. Since there were no authoritative scriptures in the early days, the Jina followers were called Nirgranthas. Bhadrabahu , Umaswati , Kundakundacharya , Siddhasenadivakaran , Siddhasenagani , Akalankadeva , Haribhadrasuri , Mallishenasuri, etc. are prominent Jain philosophers.

3. Charvaka philosophy

Brihaspati is the founder of this philosophy, also known as Lokayatam. The sutras (Barhaspatya Sutras) composed by him have not been fully discovered. Only a few sutras quoted by opponents are available.

Advaita philosophy

Shankara's philosophy is known as Advaita. The Upanishads are its foundation. The basic principle of Advaita is ' Brahmasatyam Jaganmithya ' . That is, "Brahma is truth ; the world is illusion." Nothing exists in this world except Brahma (the soul or God of the universe). The world and all the material objects that we see around us are illusion. They are just perception or Maya. Mayavada is the basic element of Advaita philosophy.

The word Advaita means ' non-dual ' or ' one ' . Shankara asserts that the Jivatma (the soul of man) and the Paramatma (the soul of the universe) are not two but one. The Jivatma is a part of the Paramatma. The words Aham Brahmasmi (I am Brahma) and Tattvamasi (You are the same) are expressions that indicate this idea. Shankaracharya tried to reform Hinduism. He is considered to have organized Hinduism into its present form. He severely criticized the rituals and practices of the divine religion and the Mimamsakas. Although he criticized Buddhism, he adopted many ideas from it. Therefore, Shankara is often called the ' Prachanna Buddha ' . Shankaracharya borrowed the concept of ' Sannyasi Matha ' from Buddhism . He established four Mutts ( Mutts) in four parts of India . They are given below.

(1) ' Jyotir Math ' in Badrinath

(2) ' Govardhamath ' in Puri

(3) ' Sharada Math ' in Dwarka

(4) Sringeri Math (on the banks of Tungabhadra-Karnataka)

He established four small monasteries in Thrissur, Kerala: Vadakkemadhom , Thekkamadhom , Naduvilmadhom , and Idayilmadhom .

Shankaracharya's teachings provided an intellectual foundation for Hinduism. The ashrams and monasteries he founded contributed to a well-organized system of Hinduism. Shankaracharya's major works are Atmabhastha , Adhikasha , Mohamugdharam , Vivekachudhamani , and Sivananda Lahari. He also wrote commentaries on the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahma Sutra.

Ancient texts in Sanskrit

Art and literary texts

Panini

Panini is a grammar book in Sanskrit. It is named after Panini. It is also known as ' Ashtadhyay ' because it has eight chapters in total . The grammar rules are divided into four sections and presented in eight chapters. The theory that ' all nouns originate from elements ' is the basis of Panini's grammar. These grammar rules can be learned using formulas similar to those in algebra. Therefore, they are easy to memorize. This book was written by Panini with the intention of constructing an authoritative one after studying the existing grammar rules. Therefore, it will be very easy for those who know Sanskrit well and very difficult for those who do not know Sanskrit well to understand. In short , it is a book for those who know Sanskrit like fresh water. There have been numerous commentaries on the Panīya in all Indian languages. The most famous is the Mahabhashya written by Patanjali on the Panīya Sutras.

Natya Shastra

When we hear Natya Shastra, we think of a book about dance. However , Natya Shastra is not only a book about dance but also a book about drama , music , rasam , decoration , acting, etc. It was written by Bharata Muni. Natya Shastra is the most ancient aesthetic science available in the world today. "Natajnjanam , natachilpam , nasavidya , nasakala , nasayuyogo , natatkarma , natyosmamin yannadrishyate " is what Bharata Muni proudly says about Natyashastra. That is , there is no knowledge, skill, knowledge, art, yoga, or action that is not mentioned in Natyashastra. Natyashastra was written by Bharata Muni in the manner that he explained it at the request of the sages. Both verse and prose forms have been used for its composition.

There are 36 chapters of Natya Shastra . The first chapter is about Natya Lapti . The second chapter contains scientific rules on where and how to build a Natya house. The last two chapters tell how Natya, which was born in heaven, reached earth. The remaining 33 chapters describe arts and music. There are different opinions among researchers about the period in which this book was written. Some argue that it was written in the second century B.C. But most believe that it was written in the second century A.D. The word metaphor is equivalent to the English word drama. In Natya Shastra, Bharata Muni talks about ten types of metaphors. Only one of these is drama. The others are Prakaranam , Veethi , Angam , Bhanam , Vayagom , Samavakaram , Prahasanam , Dimum , and Ehamrugam. But many of these, except for drama, are no longer available today.

Panchatantra

Once upon a time, in a land called Mahilaropiyam, there was a king named Amarashakti. Amarashakti was perfect in all virtues. But none of his three sons were like the king. All three were unintelligent and unwise. The king, who decided to teach his sons and make them smart, left them with a Brahmin named Vishnu Sharman. Seeing that the children would not improve even by scolding them, Vishnu Sharman found a way to teach them. Teach through stories! The stories told by Vishnu Sharman are the Panchatantra stories. Children all over the world are fans of Panchatantra stories. Panchatantra stories have had a great influence on the popular Saropadesha stories in many countries.

Although it is full of stories, Panchatantra is not considered just a storybook for children. On the contrary , it is considered the most popular ethical book in the Sanskrit language. Each of the stories is written in a very interesting way, giving human characteristics to birds and animals. There will be some kind of advice in each story. This book contains five tantras: Mitrabhedam , Mitraprapti , Kakolukiyam , Labdhapranasam , and Aparikshitakaritam. That is why it is known as Panchatantra. Panchatantra is a work that was translated into other languages a long time ago. Panchatantra has had more than two hundred translations in about fifty languages of the world. Panchatantra is always at the forefront of world children's literature.

Amarakosha

Children who have started learning Sanskrit can be heard saying that they have learned Siddharupa and Amarakosha. Amarakosha is so important in Sanskrit studies. Amarakosha is the most popular dictionary (Kosagrantha) in Sanskrit. Amarakosha was written by Amarasinha. Although there were many Kosagranthas in Sanskrit before Amarakosha, none of them were as good as Amarakosha. There have been many studies on this book. Amarasinha gave the book the name ' Namalinganusasana ' . This name was given because it describes the Namarupa and their genders. It consists of three sections namely Swaradikanda , Bhumyadikanda and Samanyakanda. Amarakosha has been prepared by dividing each species into different classes and including synonyms belonging to each. The classes are Bhuvarga , Shailavarga , Manushyavarga etc. There are a total of 27 classes in these three sections. The author of the book, Amarasinha, was known as Amaran. Thus, the Kosa Granthama written by Amaran , later came to be known as Amarakosa. Amarakosa contains 13,000 words belonging to twenty-seven classes. The first and second stanzas contain proper nouns and the third contains common nouns. Amarasinha has completed this dictionary in 1,583 verses in the Anushtup Vritta.

Kathasaritsagara

Kathasarit Sagaram is a famous collection of stories in Sanskrit. It was written by Somadeva Bhattan, who lived in Kashmir in the 12th century. It is a translation of Gunadhya's book ' Brihal Katha ' into verse form. It contains 22,000 verses in 124 tarangas (chapters) . All these verses are grandmother's tales and folk tales. The name Kathasarit Sagaram means an ocean of rivers of stories. It is a work written for Suryamati, the wife of Anantadevan, the king of Kashmir. Kathasarit Sagaram has been translated into many foreign languages. Many poets have used its poems as themes. The theme of the great poet Vallathol's Chitrayogam epic is taken from Kathasarit Sagaram.

Buddhacharitam

Ashvaghosha is one of the most prominent ancient Sanskrit poets after Valmiki. Ashvaghosha, a member of the Rajya Sabha of the Kushana king Kanishka I, was a Buddhist. He is believed to have lived between 80 and 150 AD, before Kalidasa , and is often called the first playwright in Sanskrit. Ashvaghosha's most famous poem is the Buddhacharitam. Half of the chapters of this work, one of the earliest epics in Sanskrit, have been lost. These parts were later added by the Nepali poet Amritananda. In the 5th century, the Buddhacharitam was translated into Chinese. A Tibetan translation was also made in the 7th or 8th century. Both of these translations contain the 28 chapters of the original work.

Mricchakatika

Like other ancient Sanskrit poets, there is no clear information about the poet Shudraka. The play ' Mricchakatika' made him famous. There is an argument that Shudraka was from South India. The basis of this argument is that North Indian Kavyamimsakas (those who study poetry scientifically) rarely talk about Mricchakatika and the references to South Indian castes in Mricchakatika. There is an argument that Shudraka and Bhasa are the same person. The basis of this is the similarity between Bhasa's Daridra Charudatta and Shudraka's Mricchakatika. However, it is also said that Shudraka wrote his Mruchkadika by expanding on Bhasa's play. The word Mruchkadika means ' small clay cart ' . Charudatta and Vasanthasena are the main characters in it. The beginning of this work states that the Mruchkadika was composed by a great scholar named King Shudraka. It also states that he lived till one hundred and ten years old. However, no king named Shudraka has been found in history so far.

Works of Bhasan

Bhasan's major plays are Swapnavasavadattam , Urubhangam , Pancharatram , Charudattam , Duthaghatotkacham , Avimaragam , Balacharitham , Karnabharam , Abhishekanadakam , Pratimanadakam , Duthavakyam, etc. Swapnavasavadattam is considered to be Bhasan's ' masterpiece ' . Swapnavasavadattam is the story of a king named Udayana who lived in ancient India and his wife named Vasavadatta. A manuscript of this work, which was thought to be lost forever, was discovered in Kerala in the early 20th century. In 1909 , Bhasan's plays, including Swapnavasavadattam, were discovered by T. Ganapathi Shastri from the Manalikkara Math in Padmanabhapuram. Not long after , A.R. Rajarajavarma, known as ' Kerala Panini ' , made a Malayalam translation of Swapnavasavadattam. The protagonist of Urubhangam is Duryodhana, who is about to die after fighting Bhima with a mace. The subject of the one-act play ' Karnabharam ' is Karna's mental conflicts before the Kurukshetra War. Bhima is the main character in ' Madhyamavayoga ' . The hero of Swapnavasavadattam, King Udayana, is also the central character in ' Pratijnayaugandharayana ' . The central character in the play ' Avimaragam ' is a prince named Avimaragam. Duryodhana is the main character in the play ' Pancharatram ' . ' Balacharitam ' is the story of Krishna from his birth to the death of Kamsa . The play ' Kardicharudattam ' , which tells the story of the poor Charudatta and Vasanthasena, is incomplete. It is said that the Shudraka wrote ' Mritchakadikam ' based on this.

Works of Kalidasa

Kalidasa's epic poems are ' Raghuvansham ' and ' Kumarasambhavam ' . His famous message poem is ' Meghasandesham '. It is also known as ' Meghadootham ' . Kalidasa's plays are Malavikagnimitra , Vikramorvasiyam , and Abhijnanasakuntalam. The poem ' Rithusamharam ' is also believed to be by Kalidasa. Kumarasambhavam is the story of the birth of Subrahmanya, the son of Shiva and Parvati. Kumarasambhavam means the birth of Kumar , that is, Subrahmanya. However , this poem ends before Subrahmanya's birth. Therefore, it is said to be an incomplete work. ' Abhijnanasakuntalam ' is a world-famous play written by Kalidasa with some changes to the story of Shakuntala in the Mahabharata . Shakuntala and Dushyant are the main characters in it.

Works of Banabhattan

Banan alias Banabhattan was the court poet of Harshavardhana, the king of present-day Kannauj, formerly known as Kanyakubjam. He is believed to have lived in the 7th century. Banan's famous works are ' Harshacharitam ', written about Harshavardhana, and ' Kadambari ' , considered one of the world's first novels . From these, we get information about his life. Other important works attributed to Banan are Chandikasataka and Parvathiparinayam. It is said that Banan wrote only the first part of Kadambari and the rest was completed by his son Bhushanbhattan.

Legal and political texts

Arthashastra

The Indian book ' Arthashastra ' is more than two thousand years old. Arthashastra is an Indian book that is studied and preserved by people all over the world. It is a great contribution of India to politics. Arthashastra was written by Kautilya, also known as Chanakya and Vishnugupta. He was the prime minister of Chandragupta Maurya, who ruled Pataliputra during the period 324-300 BC. Since Kautilya wrote it, Arthashastra is also known as ' Kautiliyam ' . ' Arthashastra is the science necessary for the benefit and survival of the earth on which humans live ' - this is what Kautilya himself says about his book. The word artha means wealth , money , and wealth. But Arthashastra is not a book that talks only about wealth. Many things about the governance of the country have been observed and written in it. In short, the content of Arthashastra is economic and political criticism. The Arthashastra is the oldest and most authoritative book on this subject. The first chapter states that there are six thousand verses in the Arthashastra. However , only 380 have been found. There were scholars of Arthashastra in India before Kautilya. However , Kautilya became more famous than them. He grew up as a statesman. The Arthashastra is written in 15 parts called ' Adhikaranam ' . Each Adhikaranam is divided into chapters. Each topic is called Prakaranam. There are a total of 180 Prakaranams. These are written under 195 headings. Most of the presentation is in prose form. After explaining the topic in detail, they are summarized and compiled into verses. Arthashastra contains the knowledge that is always necessary for the administration of the state, such as civil and criminal procedures , justice , punishments , espionage , war , peace , social etiquette that humans should follow , marriage , property rights , trade , and division of departments. It states that the happiness of the subjects is the happiness of the king and the will of the subjects is the will of the king. It also describes what the king should do for the welfare of the subjects. Arthashastra has been translated into languages all over the world. The first translation is believed to be in Malayalam. AD 9 to 12This is the Bhasha Kautiliya, believed to have been composed between the centuries 1000 and 1100.

Dharmashastras

The Dharmashastras are a collection of Dharmasutras, Smritis, and their commentaries. They were composed between 500 and 200 BC. The Dharmashastras are believed to be codes of law. They prescribe the duties of different varnas, kings, and officials. They also describe the punishments for those who commit crimes such as theft, violence, murder, and adultery. The Dharmashastras are not actually codes of law. They are regulations on social obligations and ceremonial requirements. The Dharmashastras were intended to maintain the caste system and protect the interests of the Brahmins. The Dharmashastras declared that the first cultivators of the land were its owners. The Dharmashastras labeled weavers and potters as Shudras. Some of them were considered Shudras because they were of mixed race. The Dharmashastras introduced many theories to prevent those from belonging to lower castes from rising to the top of the caste hierarchy. This encouraged the conversion of the lower classes to religions such as Buddhism. The Dharmashastras shunned and condemned trade, money lending, and money transactions.

Scientific texts

There was considerable progress in the field of science in ancient times. By the 3rd century BC, mathematics, astronomy, and medicine began to develop independently. The major contributions to the field of mathematics were the notation, the decimal system, and the use of zero. Zero was discovered in the 2nd century BC. The 'Sulvasuttra', which reached its final form during this time, demonstrates knowledge of geometry and measurement. In the 2nd century BC, a practical geometry was prepared for the construction of 'Apastambha' altars. It explains the minus, plus, and equal angles. Indian dyers discovered durable colors and the color blue. The world's first steel was made by Indian metalworkers.

Works on Astronomy

Aryabhata's Works

India has contributed a great book to the world of science that combines astronomy and mathematics. That is the Aryabhata. It was written by an astronomer named Aryabhata. Aryabhata is the most prominent of the ancient astronomers of India. The popular Panchangam in South India is based on the Aryabhata. The descriptions in the Aryabhata are in verse form. It contains 121 verses. All the lines with very few letters are rich in meaning. This book is divided into four sections: Geetika , Gitam , Kalakriya , and Golam. Geetika, which has only 13 verses, is the smallest of the group. It contains all the numerical instructions for the other three sections. Instead of the existing numerical methods, new methods have also been tried in it. The second section is Gitam. It has 33 verses. Along with basic mathematics, it also includes things that are useful for astronomy. It includes mathematical operations starting from square. Power , square root , cube root , arms , circles , shadow calculation , progression , interest, etc. are all discussed in this section.

The third section, Kalakriya, has 25 verses. It discusses the time period, which includes months and years , the temple section including signs , the Guru Varsha , the Solar Year , the Lunar Month, the Star Month , the Atimasa , etc. The Golapada, which has 50 verses, discusses the movement of the planets , the determination of the position of the globe , etc. The reasons for the rotation of the stars and the increase and decrease of day and night are explained here. Aryabhata is an astronomical genius who discovered the reason why the sun and stars appear to be moving when viewed from the earth. Aryabhata explained that this appears to be because the earth rotates around a fixed axis. His discoveries have become a guide for scientists all over the world. There is evidence that Aryabhata wrote a second book. Its name is 'Aryabhata Siddhanta'. Aryabhata Siddhanta is a great book in astronomy.

Varahamihira's Works

Varahamihira was a teacher who achieved extraordinary mastery in mathematics, astronomy and astrology and wrote authoritative texts. Varahamihira was more interested in astrology than mathematics. Having mastered astrology, Varahamihira collected its essence and presented it in a simple way for the common people. The books he wrote were Panchasiddhantika, Brihal Samhita, Mahayatra, Vivahapadalam, Laghu Jataka, Brihajjataka, etc. The most important of them was Brihajjataka. Many commentaries were based on that book. Brihajjataka is also known as the most important authoritative text on astrology. "I am building a small and interesting boat for those who have failed to cross the great ocean of astronomy after studying the great books written by the most intelligent people." The book 'Brihajjataka' written by Varahamihira begins with this statement. Scholars describe the book as 'the greatest marvel among astronomical texts'.

Brahmagupta's Works

Brahmagupta is a great Indian astronomer who has been described as the 'jewel among mathematicians'. At the age of thirty, Brahmagupta wrote a great book. The name of the book was 'Brahmasphutasiddhanta'. Brahmagupta Siddhanta is a large book that includes mathematical studies and astronomical theories. This great book, written in verse form, has 21 chapters. Several of them are chapters that deal only with pure mathematics. They talk about integer mathematics, square mathematics, and plane trigonometry. There have been many interpretations and translations of Brahmagupta Siddhanta. In the 8th century AD, an Arab scholar named Alfasari translated Brahmagupta Siddhanta. Muhammad ben Musa later prepared an abridged version of it. It was used as a textbook in Arabian countries for some time. In the 9th century, a mathematician named Prithukaswami wrote a commentary on the Brahmasphuta Siddhantha. Brahmagupta is also known as the first Indian scientist to study the number zero. He is also said to have been the first mathematician to think about the result of dividing a number by zero. Brahmagupta named the result of that division 'khachheda'.

Bhaskara I's Works

Bhaskara I, also known as Saurashtra and Ashmaka, was a mathematician. He is also said to have been from Kerala. Bhaskara I was an admirer of Aryabhata. He prepared a book based on the Aryabhata. It is called the Aryabhata Bhashyam. The history of Indian mathematics up to that time is filled with the Aryabhata Bhashyam of Bhaskara I. Bhaskara I has recorded that the followers of Aryabhata used temple mathematics to establish and explain the principles of arithmetic and algebra. He also quotes some verses related to mathematics in Prakrit language. He also highlights the influence of ancient Jain mathematics on the reform of the Aryabhata system. The names of some ancient mathematicians who have not been mentioned anywhere else in the past can also be read in the Aryabhata Bhashyam. Maskari and Purana are some of them. Apart from the Aryabhatiyyabhashya, two other important works attributed to Bhaskara I have been extant. These are the Mahabhaskariya and the Laghubhabhaskariya. The Mahabhaskariya is an abbreviated form of the Mahabhaskariya.

Bhaskaracharya's Works

Bhaskaracharya was born in 1114 in a village called Vijjadavidam on the banks of the Godavari River. At the age of thirty-six, Bhaskaracharya wrote the work 'Siddhantashiromani'. Siddhantashiromani has four parts. The first part deals with arithmetic. It is called Lilavati. Apart from Lilavati, Siddhantashiromani also has sections on algebra, planetary arithmetic, and the study of numbers. Lilavati, which describes mathematical operations in an interesting way, has thirteen chapters. It starts with addition and subtraction and goes on to complex mathematical problems. It explains mathematical principles through interesting examples.

Works on mathematics

Works of Baudhayana

The Baudhayana Shulavasutra was composed by Baudhayana. His lifetime was between 600 and 500 BC. The geometry of today was the Shulavasutra that was circulated at that time. The Shulavasutra has three chapters. The first chapter contains 116 sutras, the second chapter contains 86 sutras, and the third chapter contains 323 sutras. Thus, there are a total of 525 sutras in the Baudhayana Shulavasutra. The dimensions of the yajnavedi for puja rituals and the methods of constructing them are explained in these sutras. Apart from Baudhayana, Apastambha and Katyayana also composed Shulavasutras. They are Apastambha Shulavasutra and Katyayana Shulavasutra. Apart from these, the Manava Shulba Sutra and the Hiranyakosha Shulba Sutra have been discovered. No information is known about their authors.

Mahavira's Works

Mahavira is the most famous of the Jain mathematicians. He lived in Karnataka in the 9th century AD. He wrote a book called 'Ganitasarasamgraha'. The book is very popular in South India. It explains all the important points in the fields of arithmetic, algebra and geometry. In this book, Mahavira has copied and written the findings of some mathematicians who lived before him.

Works of Sangamagrama Madhavan

Sangamagrama Madhavan was born in Kerala between 1350 and 1600. That period is also described as the golden age of Kerala mathematics. Venvarohanam, Agaranam, Lagnaprakaranam, Mahajnanayagaprakaranam, Aganitha Panchangam, and Golavadam are some of Madhavan's major works. However, scholars suggest that Madhavan may have written several other books. In the work Venvarohanam, Madhavan has explained the method of finding the position of the moon at every minute. This achievement, which he achieved centuries ago, remains a miracle.

Works of Parameswaran

Parameswaran Namboothiri is believed to have lived in Kerala between 1360 and 1455. Parameswaran Namboothiri was a disciple of the famous mathematician Madhavan. The method devised by Aryabhata was popular in astronomy. Later, a scholar named Haridatthan started a system called Paharitam. However, some errors were later found in the application of Paharitam. It was found that when calculating in Paharitam, the actual position of the celestial bodies changed. Parameswaran Namboothiri thought that Paharitam needed reforms. From that time on, he began to observe the celestial bodies lying on the sand of Bharathapuzha. Along with observing the bodies, he also made some calculations in the sand. He continued his observational studies for a long fifty-five years. Thus, he composed Drigganitham in 1431. He also wrote more than thirty books. Goladeepika, Chandrachhaya Gitam, and Vyakakarana are his important works. He wrote commentaries on the Aryabhatiyya under the name Bhadadeepika and on the Mahabhaskaraiyya under the name Karmadeepika. The book 'Parameshwari' was a commentary on the Laghubhaskaraiyya. In addition to books on mathematics, Parameshwaran Namboothiri also wrote commentaries on some astrological books. He had many capable disciples.

Works of Neelakanta Somayaji

Neelakanta Somayaji is another mathematical genius who made great contributions to the growth of mathematics in Kerala. Neelakanta Somayaji was born in 1465 in Thrikkandiyur near Tirur. His book Aryabhadiyyabhashyam states that he was a disciple of Damodaran, son of Parameswaran Namboothiri. It is also believed that Thunchath Ezhuthachan, the author of Thrikkandiyur and the father of the Malayalam language, was a disciple of Neelakanta Somayaji. He wrote 'Sundarajaprasnotharam', a book that explains all the problems raised by the Tamil Nadu astronomer Sundararajan. He also wrote an explanation of Aryabhadiyya called Gitamapadam. Based on Aryabhadiyya, Gitamapadam is structured in the form of an independent book that includes all the mathematical theories known in Kerala at that time. 'Tantrasangraham' is another of his major works. He has recorded mathematical problems in even more detail and beautifully. Tantrasamgraha is a study book on astronomy. It is believed to have been composed in 1500. There are about five hundred verses in Tantrasamgraha in eight chapters. It discusses trigonometry and spherical trigonometry. They are eclipse determination, lunar shadow calculation, spherical analysis, Siddhanta Darpanam, and Grihapariksha Krama.

Works of Shankaravariya

Shankaravarrier is another mathematician from Kerala who made great contributions to mathematics. He was a disciple of Neelakanta Somayaji and has described his guru with great respect in his works. His works include Kriyakramakari, Karanasaram, Panchabodha Nthayaram, Yukti Deepika, and Laghuvivritti.

Sreedharan's Works

Sreedharan is a famous mathematician of India. He is believed to have lived in 1020 AD. Sreedharan's main works are Patiganita and Trishatika. Trishatika consists of three hundred verses. Sreedhari Lilavati is another notable work of his. Some scholars say that he also wrote a book called Algebra. Centuries later, mathematicians have found that the things he says in his works about equations, fractions, and techniques involving zero are correct.

Works of Narayana Pandit

Narayana Pandita is the main contributor to the growth of Indian mathematics after Bhaskaracharya. It is believed that Narayana Pandita lived in the 14th century. He is the author of the famous works Gitakaumudi and Bija Gitavatamsam. Narayana Pandita composed Gitakaumudi in 1356. That work is a milestone in the development of Indian mathematics. Narayana Pandita's skill in explaining mathematical operations in an interesting way can be seen in the work Gitakaumudi. The explanation is in the way of raising interesting questions and giving accurate answers to them. Narayana Pandita's book on algebra is also considered excellent. The book on algebra has two parts. Many people have written commentaries on Narayana Pandita's books. Gnanadas and Suryadas are among them.

Medical texts

Charaka Samhita

Charaka was one of the great masters of Ayurveda. The Ayurvedic text he wrote is 'Charaka Samhita '. This is one of the basic texts in Ayurveda. Charaka Samhita is written in a total of 12 chapters , each subject being divided separately . Since there are no precise records about Charaka's life, it is not clear when Charaka Samhita was written. It is given importance to physical therapy. After Charaka, in the 9th century AD, a Kashmiri physician named Dridabalan revised the Samhita again under the name 'Agnivesha Tantra'. Charaka Samhita begins with the story of how medicine and science came into being. It is written in 8 parts with 120 chapters in verse and prose. The text contains information about 149 diseases and their symptoms. It also describes in detail 341 plants and the medicines derived from them, 177 medicines derived from animals, and 64 medicines based on minerals. The books written by Harishchandra, Chakrapanidatta, and Sivadasa, who interpreted the Charaka Samhita, are also famous. It is believed that Vagbhata wrote the Ashtanga Hridaya based on the Charaka Samhita.

Sushruta Samhita

The world's first surgical text, 'Sushruta Samhita', was written by Sushruta. 'Sushruta Samhita' is one of the basic texts of Ayurveda. 'Sushruta Samhita, which is written with emphasis on surgery, consists of 120 chapters in five parts, namely Sutrasthanam, Nidanasthanam, Silaasthanam, Tikasthanam, Kalpasthanam, and Uttara Tantra, which has 66 chapters. It discusses eight types of surgeries. They are Chhedyam, Bhedyam, Lekhyam, Vedhyaam, Asiaam, Aharyam, Visravyam, and Sivyam. He performed surgery himself and taught others, and he also discusses 120 surgical instruments (yantra-shastras) in Sushruta Samhita. Yantras are for removing disorders from the body. Shastras are for tearing. Vagbhata's 'Ashtangahridayam' is a summary of the Charaka-Sushruta Samhitas. There have been many commentaries on the Sushruta Samhita. The Sushruta Samhita was translated into Arabic in the 9th century. It was later translated into Latin and German. It was later translated into English.

Ashtanga Hridaya

Ayurveda is a system of medicine that has earned India fame and recognition all over the world. Many foreigners come to our country in search of Ayurveda treatment. Kerala is the cradle of Ayurveda treatment. Ayurveda is a system of medicine that has a tradition of centuries. Ayurveda has ancient texts that explain symptoms and treatments. The most important of them is Ashtanga Hridaya. This is the Ayurveda text that the doctors of Kerala have adopted as the basis for treatment. The place of Ashtanga Hridaya in Ayurveda is as important as the heart is in our body. This famous Ayurveda text was written by Vagbhatacharya.

Ayurvedic masters say that there is no other Ayurvedic book that explains the remedies in such a simple way. Vagbhatacharya proudly says in this book that not a single unnecessary word has been added to it. There are 120 chapters in Ashtanga Hridaya. These are divided into six sections namely Sutrasthanam , Shailasthanam , Nidanasthanam , Tikasthanam , Kalpasthanam, and Uttarasthanam. Things are explained in Ashtanga Hridaya in verse form. Ayurveda grew following two different traditions namely Dhanvantari Sarvaja and Atreya Sarvaja. Of these, Ashtanga Hridaya has methods that are close to the Atreya Sarvaja. It mainly relies on herbal medicines. There is a special description of medicines with miraculous properties.

Sanskrit scholars of ancient India

1. Valmiki

The original epic 'Ramayana' was written by Valmiki. Valmiki's old name was Ratnakaran. He was a wild man who changed his mind and became an ascetic. Due to his long-term penance, a chitalput or Valmikam was formed around him. Thus, he got the name Valmiki. Ramayana means the journey of Rama. Ramayana is the most influential work in the history of India. It is said in the first part of Ramayana that Narada instructed Valmiki to write the Ramayana. Narada narrated the story of Rama to Valmiki. It spread in all the languages of India. Today, we do not have any clear information about Valmiki's parents or place of birth. It is believed that he lived on the banks of the Ganges, Tamasa and Sarayu rivers in northern India in his early days and later, during his ascetic life, his ashram was on the banks of the Tamasa.

2. Vyasan

Vyasa, also known as Krishnadvaipayana or Veda Vyasa, is an ancient Indian sage who is revered as the author and revelator of the Mahabharata. He was named Veda Vyasa because it was believed that Vyasa compiled the Hindu Vedas. He is a prominent figure in Puranas and is the son of Parashara Maharishi, born to Satyavati. He married Ambika and Ambalika, the wives of Vichitravirya, who was born to King Shantanu, born to Satyavati. The sons born to Vyasa are Dhritarashtra and Pandu. Their sons are the Kauravas and Pandavas. The war between these brothers is the basis of the epic Mahabharata. The 'Bhagavad Gita' written by Vyasa as part of the Mahabharata is one of the most valuable and beautiful philosophical works. The Brahma Sutra and the eighteen Puranas are considered to be his works. Vyasa is also considered one of the first grammarians.

3. Chanakya

Chanakya (also known as Kautilya and Vishnugupta), a statesman, thinker, and author of the ancient treatise on economics, Arthashastra, was born into an ordinary Brahmin family in Takshashila. The Arthashastra is a collection of everything written in India on artha (philosophy of wealth and material success) up to the time of its author. He was educated in Takshashila. He was knowledgeable about medicine and astronomy. He also had knowledge of some elements of Greek and Persian knowledge brought to India by the Zoroastrians. He was the advisor and assistant to the first Mauryan emperor Chandragupta. Chanakya was responsible for the overthrow of the powerful Nanda dynasty of Pataliputra. Although a strategist, he had sound political acumen and insight into human nature.

4. Kalidasa

Kalidasa is believed to have been one of the nine jewels in the court of Chandragupta Vikramaditya. There is no evidence regarding his real name, birthplace, or life span. He is believed to have lived in Ujjain. To keep Kalidasa's memory alive, the 'Kalidas Samaroh' is now held there every year. Kalidasa's major works are the poems Ritu Samharam, Meghadootham, Kumarasambhavam, and Raghu Vansham, and the plays Vikramorvasiyam, Malavikagnimitram, and Abhijnanasakuntalam. Abhijnanasakuntalam made Kalidasa world famous. This work has been translated into many languages. The German critic Goethe described Shakuntala as a great poem that unites earth and heaven. 'Meghasandesham' is a short poem that simply describes love and love-breakup. 'Kumarasambhavam' is a long poem with 17 verses. 'Raghuvansh' describes the life and reign of all the kings of the Suryavansh dynasty. 'Vikramorvasheeyam' dramatizes the love affair between Puruvaras and Urvashi.

5. Ashvaghosha

Ashvaghosha is one of the most prominent ancient Sanskrit poets after Valmiki. Ashvaghosha, a member of the Rajya Sabha of the Kushana king Kanishka I, was a Buddhist. He is believed to have lived before Kalidasa, between 80 and 150 AD, and is considered the first playwright in Sanskrit. Ashvaghosha is believed to have been born in Ayodhya. Ashvaghosha converted to Buddhism due to the influence of a Buddhist monk named Parshwan. While Ashvaghosha was in Varanasi, Kanishka attacked the city. In exchange for the gold that Kanishka had demanded, the king of that city gave him the bowl that the Buddha is believed to have used to beg for alms, and the great scholar Ashvaghosha! Ashvaghosha, who became Kanishka's chief poet, is believed to have written a poem called 'Sundarananda'. Ashvaghosha's most famous poem is the Buddhacharita. Other Sanskrit works include the Sariputra Prakaranam and the Vajrasuchi.

6. Aryabhata

Aryabhatta was a world-famous astronomer. He lived in the 5th century. He is the author of the work 'Aryabhattayam'. Aryabhattayam is a work that opened a new branch of astronomy and mathematics. It is believed that the work was composed in Kusumpuram. 'Nalanda', one of the educational centers of ancient India, was located in that city. Historians believe that Aryabhatta was the main teacher at Nalanda. Aryabhatta was born in 476 AD in a place called Ashmakam. It is believed that this place is near Kodungalur in Kerala. He was interested in mathematics and came to Kusumpuram. Following the research he conducted there, he became a unique genius in the field of mathematics. He also discovered the approximate value of pi.

7. Vagbhatan

Many researchers believe that Vagbhata lived in the 7th century AD. A person named Vagbhatacharya, who lived in the 13th century, wrote the work 'Rasaratna Samuchaya' on Rasa Tantra. Some also argue that he himself wrote the Ashtanga Hridaya and the Ashtanga Sangraha. Vagbhatacharya, a Buddhist monk, traveled all over India. It is believed that he also visited Kerala. There is a legend that after reaching Kerala, he stayed at the Buddhist monastery in Thiruvizha, Alappuzha for some time and it was during this time that he composed the Ashtanga Hridaya. Charaka, Sushruta, and Vagbhata are known as the Trimurti of Ayurveda. Some believe that Vagbhata Kosham, Vagbhatalankaram, Shringara Thilakam, and Laghu Jataka are also attributed to him.

8. Panini

There is no exact information about Panini's life. Most researchers agree that he lived between 700 and 600 BC. Others argue that he lived around the 7th century AD. Salathuram is known as Panini's birthplace. In childhood, Panini was very bad at studying. Therefore, other children would always tease him. Unable to bear the ridicule, Panini once did penance to Shiva. It is said that Shiva, who appeared, knocked on his kadunthudi 14 times. The sound that Panini heard was the 14 sutras of the alphabet. These came to be known as the 'Meheswara' sutras. Thus, Panini became educated. This is a famous legend about Panini. The Paniniya is a grammar book in Sanskrit written by Panini. It is also known as 'Ashtadhyayi' as it has a total of eight chapters. Panini is also known by the names Ahikan, Dakshiputra, Shalanki, and Paninan.

9. Banabhattan

Banan alias Banabhattan was the court poet of Harshavardhana, the king of present-day Kannauj, formerly known as Kanyakubjam. It is believed that he lived in the 7th century. Banan's famous works are 'Harshacharitam', written about Harshavardhana, and 'Kadambari', which is considered one of the first novels in the world. From these, we get information about his life. Banan, who acquired immense knowledge in Sanskrit at a young age, went out to explore the country after his education. After traveling to many countries and gaining experience, he finally returned to his own country and became famous as a poet during this period. Harshavardhana, who came to know about Banan, made him a prominent figure in his audience. Other important works believed to be Banan's are Chandikashatakam and Parvatiparinayam.

10. Charaka

Charaka was an Ayurvedic teacher who lived in ancient India. It is believed that he lived in the 1st century AD. It is also said that he lived before that. Charaka, who was a palace physician during the time of Kanishka, is mentioned in the Buddhist text 'Tripitaka'. He is the author of the Charaka Samhita. It emphasizes physical therapy. After Charaka, in the 9th century AD, a Kashmiri physician named Dridabalan revised the Samhita again under the name 'Agnivesha Tantra'. The Charaka Samhita begins with the story of how medicine and science came into being.

11. Nagarjuna

Nagarjuna, a philosopher who lived in ancient India, was an 'alchemist'. The book he wrote is 'Rasaratnakara'! It talks about the purification of metals like silver, gold, etc. He was also a medical expert and had also conducted experiments to turn other metals into gold.

12. Bharadwaj

There is an ancient Indian text that scientifically explains the workings of machines. It is called Yantrasarvaswam. This Sanskrit text is believed to have been written by sage Bharadwaja in the 4th century BC. Yantrasarvaswam means all information about machines. This text also has a chapter called 'Vaimanika Prakaranam' that explains the construction and workings of Vimanas.

13. Patanjali

Patanjali was a sage who lived in India in the 2nd century. It was Patanjali who first introduced yoga to the world as a scientific health practice that provides well-being. It was Patanjali who devised a way to use yoga for the well-being of the body by calming the troubled mind.

14. Kanadan

Kanada Muni was a scientist who lived in ancient India. Kanada Muni was the first to propose the idea that everything in this universe is made of extremely small particles. That too in the 6th century BC! Kanada wrote the 'Anu Sutra' that if matter continues to be divided, it will eventually reach a point where it cannot be divided, and that is the Paramānu. According to ancient Indian beliefs, the universe is made of the five elements: earth, air, water, fire, and sky.

15. Kapilan

Known as the father of Indian rationalism, Kapila Maharishi is the author of the Samkhya philosophy. There is no exact information about his life. Hindus consider Kapila to be an incarnation of Vishnu.

16. Dhanvantari

According to Hindu belief, Sage Dhanvantari was an incarnation of Lord Vishnu and the physician of the gods. He is also considered the source of Ayurveda. He appeared with nectar at the end of the churning of the ocean and gave Ayurveda to humanity.

17. Varahamihira

Varahamihira was a scholar who attained extraordinary mastery in mathematics, astronomy and astrology and wrote authoritative texts. He is believed to have lived in the 6th century AD. It is also said that Kalidasa and Varahamihira lived at the same time. Varahamihira was born in the village of Avanti near Ujjain. His father's name was Adityadasa. Varahamihira says in his book that he learned his knowledge from him. Varahamihira was more interested in astrology than mathematics. Having acquired expertise in astrology, Varahamihira collected its essence and presented it in a simple way for the common people. The books he wrote are Panchasiddhantika, Brihalsamhita, Mahayatra, Vivahapadalam, Laghujataka, Brihajjataka, etc.

18. Sushruta

Sushruta was an ancient surgeon. Little is known about his life. He is believed to have lived after Charaka. He is known to have been the son of sage Vishwamitra. He was a disciple of Dhanvantari. Sushruta wrote the world's first surgical treatise, 'Sushruta Samhita'. It discusses diseases that require surgery, the necessary medicines, and the procedures for care.

19. Bhasan

Bhasan is a playwright as famous as Kalidasa in Sanskrit literature. He is believed to have lived before Kalidasa, between the third and fourth centuries AD. Kalidasa mentions Bhasan in the introduction to his play 'Malavikagnimitram'. His plays were lost for centuries. Their manuscripts were discovered in the early twentieth century. Some of them were found in Kerala, so some believe that Bhasan was a Keralite. Although Bhasan's plays are very famous, we know very little about the poet Bhasan. Bhasan's major plays are Swapnavasavadattam, Urubhangam, Pancharatram, Charudattam, Duthaghatotkacham, Avimarakam, Balacharitam, Karnabharam, Abhishekanatakam, Pratimanatakam, Duthavakyam, etc.

20. Shudra

Like other ancient Sanskrit poets, there is no clear information about the poet Shudraka. The play 'Mruchkadika' made him famous. There is an argument that Shudraka was from South India. The basis of this argument is that North Indian Kavyamimamsakas (those who study poetry scientifically) rarely talk about Mruchkadika and the references in Mruchkadika to South Indian castes. The Mruchkadika states that the author of Mruchkadika was a king named Shudraka and that he lived to be one hundred and ten years old.

21. Bharatamuni

When we hear Natya Shastra, we think of it as a book about dance. However, Natya Shastra is not only a book about dance but also about drama, music, rasa, decoration, and acting. It was written by Bharata Muni. Bharata Muni proudly says about Natya Shastra that there is no knowledge, sculpture, knowledge, art, yoga, or action that is not mentioned in Natya Shastra. Bharata Muni has written Natya Shastra in the manner that he would have it as requested by the sages. Both verse and prose forms have been used for its writing.

22. Vishnu Sharma

Vishnu Sharman is the author of the famous book Panchatantra. Although it is said that he wrote it in the Panchatantra written by Vishnu Sharman, his lifetime and place are not mentioned anywhere. Some people are of the opinion that even the name Vishnu Sharman may be fictional. Each of the stories is very interesting, giving human characteristics to birds and animals. There is some important lesson in each story. Panchatantra is a work that was translated into other languages a long time ago.

23. Amarasingha

The most popular dictionary (dictionary) in the Sanskrit language is the Amarakosha. This book was written by Amarasinha. The author of the book was known as Amaran. Thus, the dictionary written by Amaran later came to be known as Amarakosha. There is an argument that Amarasinha, one of the great Navaratnas in the court of Emperor Vikramaditya (Chandragupta II), the hero of the stories Vikramaditya and Vetalam, is the same Amaran who wrote the Amarakosha. However, there is an opinion that many of the Navaratnas lived at different times. Another argument is that Amarasinha lived between 700 and 900 AD. It is also said that this is the same Amarasinha mentioned in the legends related to Shankaracharya. Shankaracharya lived from AD 788-820. If so, Amarasinha must have lived during this period. There is also information available that proves that Amarasinha was a Buddhist.

24. Baudhayana

Baudhayana lived between 600 and 500 BC. Not much information is available about his life. Baudhayana wrote the Baudhayana Shulavasutra. The Shulavasutra explains the dimensions of the yajnavedi for puja rituals and the methods for constructing them.

25. Sri Shankaracharya

Indian philosopher and theologian Shankara was born in Kalady, near Aluva. He was born into a devout Brahmin family and became a monk after his father's death. Shankara is said to have travelled all over India, engaging in debates with philosophers of different faiths. He is the author of over three hundred Sanskrit texts, most of which are commentaries on the Vedic literature. He is the best-known exponent of the Advaita school of Vedanta philosophy and is also known as 'Adi Shankara'. He laid the foundation for orthodox Hinduism in India, which had been challenged by Jainism and Buddhism for centuries. Shankara, who took up monasticism as a child, was taught by Govindacharya. He visited Kashi and wrote commentaries on the Brahma Sutras, the Upanishads, and the Bhagavad Gita. He is believed to have composed many hymns, prakaramanas like the Adikasahasri, and commentaries on many works.

26. Brahmagupta

Brahmagupta was a great Indian astronomer who was described as the 'jewel among mathematicians'. This epithet was given by Bhaskaracharya. Brahmagupta established himself in the field of mathematics by studying the works of Aryabhata. Later, he made many discoveries of his own. Complete information about Brahmagupta's biography is not available. He is believed to have been born in 598 AD at a place called Dillamala in the Sindh province. His father's name was Jishnu Gupta. Brahmagupta's education was in Ujjain. After that, he worked as an astronomer in the court of Vyagramukha.

27. Bhaskara I

Bhaskara I, also known as Saurashtra and Ashmaka, was a mathematician. He is also said to have been from Kerala. There are no precise records about his place of birth or other aspects of his life. He is believed to have lived in the 6th century. Bhaskara I was a fan of Aryabhata. He prepared a book based on the Aryabhata. It is called the Aryabhata Bhashya. The history of Indian mathematics up to that time is filled with the Aryabhata Bhashya of Bhaskara I. Apart from the Aryabhata Bhashya, two other important works have been found by Bhaskara I. These are the Mahabhaskariya and the Laghubhaskariya. Bhaskara I understood that the Earth was round before the Westerners. Bhaskara I developed Aryabhata's principles in the study of celestial bodies.

28. Bhaskaracharya

Bhaskaracharya (Bhaskara II) was born in 1114 in a village called Vijjadavidam on the banks of the Godavari River. This place is in the state of Karnataka. Bhaskara's father was a scholar, Maheshwaran. Maheshwaran taught his son mathematics at a young age. At the age of thirty-six, Bhaskaracharya wrote the work 'Siddhantashiromani'. Bhaskaracharya was an expert in making the difficult laws of mathematics and astronomy clear and simple. He knew that any number divided by zero gives infinity. He talks about symbols, the use of letters to represent unknown numbers, etc. Bhaskaracharya recorded that the atmosphere extends sixty-six kilometers thick near the surface of the earth. He believed that above the atmosphere there are clouds and above that there are clouds. He also knew about the movement of the planets.

29. Mahavira

Mahavira is the most famous of the Jain mathematicians. He lived in Karnataka in the 9th century AD. At that time, Karnataka was ruled by a king named Amoghavarshnripatunga. He wrote a book called 'Ganitasarasamgraha'. The book was very popular in South India. Mahavira's contributions to mathematics are numerous. Mahavira assigned special names to numbers up to 24 places, such as Ekam, Dasham, Shatam, Sahasram, Dashasahasram, Lakhs, Millions, Crores, Dashakodi, Shatakodi, Arbudam, Nyarbudam, Kharvam, Mahakharvam, Padmam, Mahapadmam, Kshoni, Mahakshoni, Shankham, Mahashankham, Kshiti, Mahakshiti, Kshobham, Mahakshobham. Mahavira was the first Indian mathematician to use 'la sagu' in operations with fractions. He also performed mathematical operations using negative numbers. Mahavira is also credited with being the first Indian mathematician to study the ellipse.

30. Sangamagrama Madhavan

Once upon a time, there was a village near Irinjalakuda. It was known as Sangamagrama. Madhavan was a great mathematician who was born and raised there. Everyone called him Sangamagramam Madhavan by adding the name of the village along with his name. Not much information is available about the life of Sangamagramam Madhavan. Sangamagramam Madhavan was born in Kerala between 1350 and 1600. That period is also described as the golden age of Kerala mathematics. Venvarohanam, Agaranam, Lagnaprakaranam, Mahajnanayagaprakaranam, Aganitha Panchangam, Golavadam etc. are some of Madhavan's major works.

31. Parameswaran

Vadassery Illam is located on the northern bank of the Bharathapuzha River, near its confluence with the ocean. It is there that the talented Parameswaran Namboothiri was born and raised. He is known as the most talented mathematician Kerala has seen after Aryabhatta. It is believed that Parameswaran Namboothiri lived in Kerala between 1360 and 1455. Parameswaran Namboothiri was a disciple of the famous mathematician Madhavan. Drigganitham, Goladeepika, Chandrachhaya Gitam, Vyakakaranam, Bhadadeepika, Karmadeepika and Parameswari are some of his important works. He had many talented disciples.

32. Neelakanta Somayaji

33. Narayana Pandit

Narayana Pandit was the main contributor to the growth of Indian mathematics after Bhaskaracharya. It is believed that Narayana Pandit lived in the 14th century. It has been understood that his father's name was Nrisimhadavijnan. However, no one knows exactly where in India Narayana Pandit lived. He is the author of the famous works Gitakaumudi and Bija Gitavatamsam. Narayana Pandit wrote Gitakaumudi in 1356.

34. Sreedharan

Sreedharan is a famous mathematician of India. Sreedharan has made discoveries that amazed even the great mathematician Bhaskara II. He is believed to have lived in 1020 AD. Patiganita and Trishatika are considered to be Sreedharan's major works. Manuscripts of these books have been found in the collections of scholars. Later, these books were printed and published. Sreedhari Lilavati is another notable work of his. Centuries later, mathematicians have found that the things said in his works about equations, fractions, and techniques involving zero are correct.

Buddhist literature

Buddhist scriptures are written in the Pali language. Their collection is called the Tripitaka . It has three parts: the Vinaya Pitaka , the Sutta Pitaka , and the Abhidhamma Pitaka. The Vinaya Pitaka, the first part of the Tripitaka, has five books. It contains guidelines and rules of conduct for monks. It also contains rules for those seeking new entry into the Sangam. The Sutta Pitaka, the second part of the Tripitaka, is a collection of the Buddha's religious teachings. It is divided into five collections called the Nikayas . The Abhidhamma Pitaka , the third part of the Tripitaka, explains the precepts of Buddhism. It has eight books. The Jataka stories in Buddhist literature describe the biographies of bodhisattvas. They tell the story of the Buddha's past lives (each birth story is called a Jataka). Buddhism promoted regional languages such as Pali , Prakrit , Ardha Magadhi , and Tamil. Religious texts such as the Tripitakas and Jataka stories were written in Pali. Buddhist texts such as the Deepavamsa and the Mahavamsa were also written in Pali.

Jain literature

Jain literature consisted of religious and secular works. They were written in Ardha Magadhi and Prakrit. Manuscripts of these works are preserved in Jain temples in Rajasthan and Gujarat. The holy book of Jains is known as ' Agamasiddhanta ' . Their primary texts are called Purva. There are fourteen of them. Purva is divided into 12 sections called ' Vedas ' . They are written in Prakrit. The Shvetambaras and Digambaras have their own literary works. These texts are written in Prakrit. Later, they also wrote in Sanskrit. They have contributed to the religious literature of regional languages like Kannada , Tamil and Telugu. One of the best works in Tamil is ' Jivaka Chintamani ' , which is a Jain contribution. Some Jain texts were also written in Apabhramsha, a bridge language between Sanskrit and Prakrit.

Dravidian literature

Languages such as Tamil , Telugu , Kannada , Malayalam , Tulu , Kodagu , Koda , and Gondi belong to the Dravidian language family. Tamil has the oldest literature among the Dravidian languages. Tamil is one of the oldest classical languages in the world. The earliest literature in Tamil, Sangam literature, is about 2300 years old .

Sangam literature

The Irainar Akaporul is an important work on the Sangam literature. It is a commentary on the Sangam literature written in the 8th century AD. According to this commentary, the ancient Tamil literature can be divided into three distinct categories: the Pattupattu , the Ettuthokai , and the Patinen Keezhkanakku. The oldest of these is the grammar book Tholkappiyam. The most recent of the Sangam works are the two epics - Chilapathikaram and Manimekalai. The Ettuthokai is the collective name for eight early Tamil literary works. These eight works are Nattinai , Kurunthokai , Aingarunur , Patittupathu , Paripadal , Kalithokai , Akananur , and Purananur. The Pattupattu is a collection of ten long poems. These are Thirumurukattupadai , Porunarattupadai , Chirupanattupadai , Perumponattupadai , Mullaipattu , Kurinjipattu , Mathuraikanchi , Nedunalvadai , Pattinippalai , Malaipattukkadam etc. The main themes in these are romanticism and heroic descriptions. Along with these, descriptions of nature and descriptions of people's lives are also found. Generally, the Sangam works are divided into two categories: ' Akam ' and ' Akam ' . The Akam songs are descriptions of the personal achievements of the kings and the wars they wage. The Akam songs deal with topics such as love and family life. The number eighteen consists of 18 works. The most important of these is the Thirukkural composed by Thiruvalluvar. The themes in the Thirukkural are universal truths. It is considered an immortal work in Tamil literature. The Sangam works are written in poetic form. Some of the poems are accompanied by their commentary. All these works are written in Tamil. Many of the poems depict cattle rustling and plundering. They also illustrate environmental awareness and environmental understanding. The Sangam works provide valuable information about the ancient history and culture of South India.

Gupta literature

The Gupta period saw a great progress in the field of literature. It was the golden age of Sanskrit literature. Along with this, regional languages also made progress. Popular languages like Pali , Prakrit , Tamil , and Bengali made remarkable achievements during this period. The reason for this leap in the field of literature was the encouragement of the Gupta kings. Nine great poets known as the ' Navaratnams ' graced the court of Chandragupta Vikramaditya. The highest position among them is held by Kalidasa. His ' Abhijnanasakuntalam ' is one of the hundred great literary works of the world. Shakuntalam was one of the first works to be translated into European languages. His plays ' Malavikagnimitram ' and ' Vikramorvvasiyam ' are of high literary quality. Kalidasa composed the epic poems ' Kumara Sambhavam ' and ' Raghu Vansham ' , as well as the poems ' Rithusamharam ' and ' Megha Sandesham ' . These works, which combine artistic beauty and literary value, are known both within and outside India.

Visakhadatta was another prominent poet and playwright of the Gupta period. His historical play ' Mudrarakshasam ' recounts the history of Chandragupta Maurya. His other play ' Devi Chandragupta ' depicts the war between Chandragupta Vikramaditya and the Sakas and his victory over the Sakas. Bharavi's ' Kiratarjuniya ' , Shudraka's ' Mritchakadika ' , Bhatti's ' Ravanavadham ', Dandin's ' Kavyadarsana ', ' Dasakumaracharitam ' etc. are famous works of the Gupta period. Bhasa's 13 plays belong to this period. The epics Ramayana and Mahabharata are believed to have been completed during the Gupta period. The memoirs of Yajnavalkya , Narada , Katyayana , and Brihaspati were also composed during this period. The earliest Puranas were also written during the Gupta period.

Harisena, the minister and poet of Samudragupta, was another genius of this period. The ' Panchatantrakatha ' were written during the Gupta period. Amarasinha, the author of the dictionary ' Amarakosha ' , also lived during the Gupta period. Many scientific and medical books were also written during the Gupta period. The well-known scholar Aryabhatta wrote his famous work ' Aryabhatiyam ' and nurtured astronomy and mathematics. Varahamihira, the author of the books ' Panchasiddhantika ', ' Brhatsamhita ', ' Brhatjataka ' and ' Laghujataka ' and an astronomer, also lived during this period. Brahmagupta is another astronomer who contributed to scientific literature. Vagbhata's ' Ashtanga Hridaya ' and Dhanvantari's Ayurvedic texts are works that enriched the science of medicine.

Authors (works) of the Gupta period

1. Visakhadatta - Mudrarakshasam , Devi Chandragupta

2. Bharavi - Kiratarjuniyam

3. Shudraka - Mrichakadika

4. Bhatti - Ravana's death

5. Dandin - poetic philosophy , Dashakumaracharitam

6. Aryabhatta - Aryabhatiyam

7. Varahamihira - Panchasiddhantika , Brihatjataka , Brihatsamhita , Laghujataka

8. Vagbhata - Eight-membered heart

9. Kalidasa - Abhijnanasakuntalam , Malavikagnimitram , Vikramorvvasiyam , Kumarasambhavam , Raghuvansam , Ritusamharam , Meghasandesam

Medieval literature

Persian literature

With the Muslim invasion of India, a new tradition emerged in the science of Indian historiography. Muslims had a high sense of history. They had started writing books on Islam since the time of the Prophet. These books were written in Arabic. But after the tenth century, the place of Arabic was taken by Persian. When Muslims came to India, they also brought Persian literature. With this, there was an extraordinary increase in the number and quality of historical books. Al-Biruni , Amir Khusrau , Ziauddin Barani , Ibn-Battuta and Abul Fazl are the prominent figures who laid the foundation of the Arab-Persian tradition. The Persian language had made progress during the Mughal period. Persian prose and poetry reached its peak during the reign of Akbar. Abul Fazl, a great scholar and a famous historian, developed a new style in prose writing. This innovative style, which combined Persian and Arabic writing traditions, was followed by many generations.

Urdu literature

Urdu, which was used for trade and religious studies, developed as a language in the 12th century. Gradually, Urdu literature began to develop in the Gujarat and Deccan regions. The earliest Urdu literary works were long poems called ' Masnavi ' . The Mughals gave great encouragement to Urdu literature. The famous songs called ' Ghazal ' emerged as part of Urdu literature. Urdu literature received a revival with the advent of the ' Aligarh Movement ' that formed in the late 19th century . Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was the main architect of this literary movement. This was the period of Urdu renaissance. Prose literature also began to grow in Urdu during this period. The greatest writer in Urdu literature is Muhammad Iqbal, who wrote the song ' Saare Jahanse Achcha ' . His influence on Urdu literature lasted until the middle of the 20th century. Premchand , who wrote in both Hindi and Urdu, and later Qurratul Ain Haider and Ali Sardar Jafri, are all famous Urdu writers. Qurratul Ain Haider and Ali Sardar Jafri are writers who have won the Jnanpith.

Hindi literature

Bhakti poets have made great contributions to Hindi language and literature. Kabir was the most famous poet of the Bhakti movement. Although he could not read or write, he recited excellent poems , which were written down by his disciples. Tulsidas , Surdas , and Mirabai are other prominent figures of the Bhakti movement. Surdas and Mirabai were devotees of Krishna. The main theme of their poems is Krishna devotion. Tulsidas's ' Ramcharitmanas ' is famous. Hindi literature grew through many talented people, including the 14th-century Sufi poet Amir Khusru and the 15th-century Vidyapati. The modern era of Hindi literature began in the mid-19th century. Bharatendu Harishchandra is known as the father of modern Hindi literature.

Modern literature

Bengali literature

Many consider the book Charyapada, believed to have been written in the 11th century, to be the first work of Bengali literature. Bengali literature after that can be called medieval Bengali literature and modern Bengali literature. Jayadeva's ' Gitagovindam ' and Vidyapati's ' Maithili Gaanam ' are some of the works that have greatly influenced Bengali writing. The most famous poet in Middle Bengali literature was Chaitanya. He made great contributions to the development of literature.

Modern Bengali literature began to develop from the 19th century. With the encouragement of the British rulers, Fort William College began efforts to publish Bengali prose books. Famous Bengali scholars were appointed for this purpose. Later , social reformers like Ram Mohan Roy and writers like Bankim Chandra Chatterjee , Madhusudan Dutta , Rabindranath Tagore , and Saratchandra Chatterjee brought Bengali literature to the forefront. The golden age of Bengali literature began with Rabindranath Tagore receiving the Nobel Prize. With this, Bengali literature gained world attention. Bengali works were translated into various Indian languages and world languages. Many Bengali writers like Tarashankar Banerjee , RC Dutta , and Premendra Mitra are world famous today.

Assamese literature

Assamese has a rich literature. Assamese literature is divided into three stages of development: early literature , medieval literature , and modern literature. Early literature includes literary works written between the 14th and 16th centuries. ' Prahlada Charita ' written by Hemasaraswati is an important poem written in the 14th century in Assamese. The main subject of most of the poems during this period were the stories of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. The works of famous poets like Shankaradeva and Madhavadeva all fall under this category.

Medieval literature includes works from the 17th and 18th centuries. During this period, many Sanskrit poems and plays were translated into Assamese. This enriched Assamese literature. Modern Assamese literature began to flourish from the beginning of the 19th century. Prose and verse progressed equally during this period. Hembarua , Navakanta Barua , Nilamani Phukan , Abdul Mallik , Atul Chandra Hazarika, etc. are notable writers of modern Assamese literature.

Odia literature

Odia is a language that has produced some of the best literary works in India. Saraladas's ' Mahabharata ' , written between the 14th and 15th centuries , is considered to be the first work in Odia. Odia literature has developed through three phases. The first is the period up to 1500 AD . The later ones are the middle phase from 1500 to 1800 and the modern phase after 1800. Literature began to flourish in Odisha with the spread of Buddhism and Shaivism. While poetry literature developed first in most other Indian languages, prose literature began to develop in Odia from an early age. Avadhuta Narayanaswami's ' Rudrasudhanidhi ' is a work written in prose form in the 14th century in Odia. The Mahabharata and the Ramayana were written in Odia as stories and poems. Like the Kavitriyam in Malayalam, there were also Trimurtis in modern Odia literature. They were Fakir Mohan Senapati , Radhanath Rai , and Madhusudhan Rao. Fakir Mohan Senapati is the founder of the Odia novel movement. Kalindicharan Panigrahi , Gopinath Mohanty , and Seetakant Mahapatra are some of the famous Odia writers.

Gujarati literature

Gujarati literature developed through three periods: the Early Ghat , the Middle Ghat , and the Modern Ghat. All the early works were by Jains. Muslims and Parsis developed Gujarati literature in the Middle Ghat. Devotional literature also emerged as a part of Hinduism during this period. Narasimha Mehta and Mirabai, who lived in the 15th and 16th centuries, were prominent figures in this category. Gujarati literature entered the modern phase during the time of poets Akha Bhagat , Premananda Bhat , and Shyamal Bhat, who lived in the 17th and 18th centuries. Persian literature and English literature influenced the development of the Gujarati language during this period. K.M. Munshi , Umashankar Joshi , Chandravadan Mehta , Gulabdas Broker , and Kaka Kalelkar, among others, developed modern Gujarati literature to world standards.

Sindhi literature

Sindhi literature is known to other speakers through the works of the 17th-century Sufi poet Shah Abdul Latif. Sindhi literature developed through Sufi poetry and Advaita Vedanta poetry. This development took place in two ways in Pakistan and India in the 19th and 20th centuries. In Pakistan, Sindhi writers followed the path of Persian. In India, Sindhi writers modeled themselves on the methods of Hindi literature.

Kashmiri literature

Kashmiri literature is about 750 years old. Sanskrit and Persian literature have influenced Kashmiri literature. That is how Shaivite literature and Sufi literature entered Kashmir. Kashmiris are known as the ' singing people ' due to the great popularity of songs in Kashmir ! In the 15th century, during the reign of the Kashmiri king Zain-ul-Abidin, arts and literature progressed a lot. Modern Kashmiri literature is influenced by foreign languages and literature. Pandit Nanda Ram , Zinda Kaul, known as ' Masterji ' , etc. are famous writers of Kashmir. The Kashmiri Ramayana written by Prakash Ram Bhat in the 19th century is famous.

Punjabi literature

Punjabi is a language that produced literary works earlier than many other regional languages of India. However, the period of Guru Nanak is considered to be the golden age of Punjabi literature. The Janam Sakhis, written about Guru Nanak, the founder of the Sikh religion, initiated Punjabi prose literature. The writings of Sufi gurus were widespread in Punjabi literature in the 16th and 17th centuries. Sufi gurus like Shah Hussain , Sultan Bahu , and Shah Sharaf developed Sufi literature. In the 18th century, when politics heated up in Punjab and the Sikhs defeated the Mughals, literature also progressed. Modern Punjabi literature began to grow after the 1860s . Punjabi novels developed through the writings of Nanak Singh , Veer Singh , etc. Patriotic poems during the freedom struggle also gave rise to verse literature. Jaswant Singh Rahi and Shiv Kumar Batalvi are famous Punjabi writers. Amrita Preet and Dalip Kaur are prominent female writers in Punjabi literature.

Marathi literature

The development of Marathi literature took place in three phases: Old Marathi ( up to 1350 AD ) , Medieval Marathi ( 1350–1800), and Modern Marathi ( after 1800 ) . Marathi poetry and prose began to flourish during the reign of the Yadava kings, who ruled from 1189 to 1320. Works such as the Ramayana , the Mahabharata , and the Panchatantra were translated into Old Marathi during this period. Later religious sects such as the Mahanubhav Pant and the Varagari Pant also contributed to the development of Marathi. They used Marathi to spread their ideas. Most of the writings of these sects were in verse form.

Jnanadevan and Namadevan were the first Marathi writers to spread devotional poetry in Marathi. Namadevan is the first Marathi writer to have a hand in all fields of literature. Eknath, a famous medieval Marathi writer , and Tukaram, who wrote devotional poems, were responsible for the growth of Marathi. Harinarayana Apte and V.S. Khandekar are prominent figures in modern Marathi literature. Many of Khandekar's novels, which won the Jnanpith, have been translated into other Indian languages.

Tamil literature

The earliest literature in Tamil, Sangam Sahitya, is about 2300 years old. The history of Tamil can be divided into three periods based on the changes in grammar and vocabulary. Ancient Tamil ( 450 BC - AD 700), Medieval Tamil (AD 700 - AD 1600), and Modern Tamil (from AD 1600 ). The letters in Tamil came from the Brahmi script. ' Tholkappiyam ' is the oldest book that explains Tamil grammar . There are many eminent people who have made Tamil literature great, including Thiruvalluvar, who wrote Thirukkural , Ilankovadikal, who wrote Chilapathikaram , and the famous poet Subrahmanya Bharathi.

Malayalam literature

It is believed that after the early works of the Sangam period, Malayalam became an independent language, with the influence of the Sanskrit language decreasing. Malayalam grew by adopting many words from Sanskrit. By the 13th century, Malayalam had a script separate from the Tamil-Brahmi script. Thunchathu Ramanujan Ezhuthachan is known as the ' father of the modern Malayalam language ' . He wrote the Ramayana and the Mahabharata in Malayalam. However , there are those who believe that the first work in modern Malayalam was ' Krishna Gaatha ' written by Cherussery in the 15th century . The period before ' Krishna Gaatha ' is considered the old age of the Malayalam language. Kunchan Nambiar is a genius who enriched Malayalam with his Thullal works in the 18th century. Christian missionaries have also played a major role in the growth of the modern Malayalam language. Herman Gundert, who prepared the Malayalam - English dictionary, is a prominent one among them. The basic grammar books of the Malayalam language were written by ' Keralapanini ' A.R. Rajaraja Varma. Apart from him, the excellent contributions of many literary geniuses like Keralavarma Valiyakoithampuran , O. Chandu Menon , C.V. Raman Pillai , Kumaranasan , Ulloor.S. Parameswara Iyer , Vallathol Narayana Menon and others have strengthened Malayalam literature.

Kannada literature

The oldest written document in the Kannada language is a 5th-century inscription. In literature, the oldest Kannada literary work is ' Kavirajamarga ' written by Nripatunga, who lived in the 9th century. Many famous writers like Pampa , Kumaravyasan , and Basaveshwara have developed and expanded Kannada literature. Bhakti movements like Veerashaiva and Haridasa have significantly influenced Kannada literature. Kannada language and literature, which grew under the influence of Sanskrit, were later influenced by English. K.V.Puttappa , D.R.Bendre , M. Venkatesa Iyengar , Sivaram Karanth , and Girish Karnad are famous Kannada writers of the 20th century.

Telugu literature

Telugu literature began in the 11th century. It was with the Mahabharata written by Nannayya Bhatta. Nannayya , Thikana and Erana are the three poets who made great contributions to Telugu literature. The 16th century, during the reign of the famous ruler of the Vijayanagara Empire , Krishnadevaraya , is known as the ' Golden Age of Telugu Literature ' . Later, during the British rule, the influence of the English language also helped in the growth of Telugu. Vishwanath Satyanarayan , C. Narayana Reddy , Ravuri Bharadwajan and others are the writers who brought the Jnanpith Award to Telugu.

Literature in the National Movement

Neeldarpan

'Neeldarpan' is a play written by Bengali playwright Dina Bandhu Mitra, depicting the brutal exploitation suffered by the indigo farmers of Bengal in a heart-wrenching manner. Written during 1858-59, this play was first performed in Dhaka in 1860. This play has a conceptual connection with the indigo farmers' revolt that took place in Bengal in 1859. This play, which was performed on hundreds of stages, was received with great enthusiasm by the people. The problems of the farmers depicted in 'Neeldarpan' were taken up by the early political organization, the Indian Association, founded by Surendranath Banerjee, and spread throughout India. This play inspired peasant revolts in various parts of India. The characters in Neeldarpan were villagers and landlords. Main characters - Golok Chandra Basu (rich farmer), Nobin Mandap, Bindu Madhab (Golok's sons), Sadhu Charan (farmer), Sabitri, and Rebati.

Ananda Math

Bengali writer Bankim Chandra Chatterjee transformed the novel, which was a Western literary form, into a medium to depict the realities of Indian life. The most notable of his novels is 'Ananda Matham', which was written on the theme of the asceticism of the farmers of Bengal. Through this, he was able to convince the people of India of the condition of the farmers of Bengal and the difference between the rich and the common people. The song 'Vande Mataram' is taken from Ananda Matham. 'Ananda Matham' was published in 1882. It is the story of a group of warriors of Goddess Kali, called 'Ananda', who fought against the enemies. The main characters are a housewife named Kalyani, her husband Mahendra, and a sannyasi. 'Vande Mataram' is the slogan they shouted when they advanced against the enemies. Vande Mataram later became the national anthem of India.

Vande Mataram

India's national anthem, 'Vande Mataram', was first sung in public by Rabindranath Tagore at the 1896 Congress session. Vande Mataram rose to prominence with the strengthening of the Swadeshi movement following the partition of Bengal in 1905. The British made it punishable to sing Vande Mataram. On January 24, 1950, the Constituent Assembly declared Vande Mataram as the national anthem. The most popular form of Vande Mataram, broadcast on All India Radio, is set to the Desh Raga.

Durgeshanandini

Bankim Chandra Chatterjee was a Bengali poet, novelist and journalist. His writing style inspired writers across India. He is known in Bengali as the 'Sahitya Samrat'. His first published novel was 'Rajmohan's Wife.' Bankim Chandra Chatterjee's first Bengali novel was 'Durgeshanandini', published in 1865. It is set during the reign of Mughal Emperor Akbar.

Saare Jaham Se Achcha

'Saare Jaham Se Achcha, Hindustan Hamara' is a song by Allama Muhammad Iqbal that glorifies the natural beauty of India and the unity of its people. This composition was very helpful in creating awareness among the people about the one nation of India. It was a patriotic song written in Urdu for children. The song was first published in the weekly 'Ittihad' in August 1904. The song became very popular when Muhammad Iqbal himself sang Saare Jaham Se Achcha in public at a program held in Lahore in 1905.

Godan

'Premchand' was the pen name of the Hindi writer Dhanpat Rai Srivastava, who exposed the living conditions of the common people. Premchand's works strongly expose the crises of the weaker sections of the society. His most famous work is 'Godan.' This novel, published in 1936, is considered one of the best works in Hindi. The main characters in the novel are Hori, Dhaniya, Gobar, Bhola, Heera, and Puniya. 'Karmabhumi' is Premchand's work inspired by Gandhiji's Satyagraha movement. The background of the novel is the social life of Uttar Pradesh in the 1930s. Another notable work of his is 'Seva Sadan.'

Geetanjali

Rabindranath Tagore is India's first memorable writer and cultural leader. The enthusiasm he instilled during the intense stages of the Indian freedom struggle was immense. Gandhiji addressed him as 'Gurudev'. 'Gitanjali' is the work for which Tagore won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1913. The English translation of this work was prefaced by the prominent English poet W.B. Yeats. Gitanjali was published in Bengali in July 1910. Gitanjali is a work that provides light and instruction to the people. Tagore is the first person from the Asian continent to win the Nobel Prize. The songs in Gitanjali are mainly devotional songs based on Indian tradition. The song, which begins with "Where the mind stands fearless and the head held high," and ends with "To that heaven of freedom, O Father, awaken my country, " is a notable part of this work.

Rabindra Sangeet

Rabindra Sangeet is a musical style that the great poet Rabindranath Tagore created to sing his songs and poems in a way that suits his own imagination. While adopting the ragas of North Indian music, Rabindra Sangeet is a free style of singing that avoids the rigidity of their scientificity. Rabindra Sangeet includes folk music styles, ragas of Carnatic music, and some aspects of Western music. Tagore expressed love songs, seasonal songs, national songs, children's songs, and devotional songs in the style of Rabindra Sangeet.

Odi Vilayadu Pappa

Subrahmanya Bharathi is a writer who ignited the enthusiasm of the national movement in South India. He is also known as 'Bharathiyar'. His works include Panchalishapatham, Kalipattu, Kannanpattu and Kuilpattu. After the British government issued an arrest warrant for him in 1908, he lived in Puducherry, a French colony, until 1918. Subrahmanya Bharathi's famous poem is 'Odi Vilayadu Pappa. He died in 1921.

Varika Varika Sahajare

Many poems and songs that strengthened the national movement were also written in Malayalam. These include patriotic songs that inspired the people. Mahakavi Vallathol's Ente Gurunathan, Bapuji, and Indiya Karachil are works based on the national movement. The main theme in the works Ente Gurunathan and Bapuji is Gandhiji. The patriotic song that was sung by volunteers during the struggle held in Kerala as part of the Salt Satyagraha begins with "Varika Varika Sahajare, Valiya Sahana Samaramai". It was composed by Amshi Narayana Pillai.

Journalism in India

Newspapers

India is one of the countries with the largest number of newspapers in the world. The first daily newspaper in India, the ' Bengal Gazette ', was published on January 29 , 1780 , from Kolkata. James Augustus Hickey was behind this. The newspaper, which was also known as the ' Calcutta General Advisor ', was in English. However, due to criticism of the British government, the publication of the newspaper was banned in 1782. The oldest daily newspaper in India that continues to be published is ' Bombay Samachar '. The newspaper was started in 1822 by Fardurji Marzban. It is published in Gujarati. The ' Madras Mail ' , published in 1868 , is the first evening newspaper in India. Most newspapers and periodicals in India are published in Hindi.

National Movement and Newspapers

The Indian national movement and its leaders relied on newspapers as the main medium to convey their ideas to the masses. Publishing newspapers was recognized as a social service from the very beginning. The main functions of newspapers during the national struggle were:

• Made people aware of social reforms against evils and immoralities in Indian society.

• Informed the people of India about the oppression , tyranny , and massacres taking place in every part of India .

• Motivated people to protest and respond against British rule and social evils in India.

• Provided information about the struggles people are waging for freedom, democracy, and equality in various parts of the world.

• Made people aware of the economic exploitations of the British rule.

• News of thousands of deaths in various parts of India due to plague and famine spread throughout India.

Sambad Kaumudi

The first newspapers with a nationalist outlook in India were started by Raja Ram Mohan Roy. His Bengali-language ' Sambad Kaumudi ' and Persian-language ' Mirat-ul-Akbar ' emphasized the ideas of social reform , nationalism , and democracy. Following their footsteps, many newspapers were launched in different languages. Most of these were published by leaders of the social reform movement and the nationalist movement.

Vernacular Language Newspaper Act

Realizing the power of newspapers, the British government made several attempts to control them. The most important of these was the Vernacular Press Act, enacted by Lord Lytton in 1878. This imposed strict restrictions on newspapers published in the vernacular languages of India. Following a strong protest against this, the British government withdrew the act. At that time, people considered reading newspapers, spreading news, and protecting newspapers as part of the freedom struggle.

Social reform newspapers and their leaders

• Sambad Kaumudi , Mirat-ul-Akbar - Raja Ram Mohan Roy

• Shomprakash - Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar

• National Paper , Indian Mirror - Debendranath Tagore

• Voice of India - Dadabhai Naoroji

• Prabuddha Bharat , Udbodhan - Swami Vivekananda

Major newspapers and leaders during the National Struggle

• Amritbazar Patrika - Sishirkumar Ghosh , Motilal Ghosh

• Hindu , Swadeshi Mitra - G. Subrahmanya Iyer

• Bombay Samachar - Fardurji Marzban

• Kesari , Maratha - Bal Gangadhar Tilak

• Bengali - Surendranath Banerjee

• Voice of India - Dadabhai Naoroji

• New India , Commonwealth - Annie Besant

• Young India , Harijan , Indian Opinion , Navajeevan - Gandhiji

• Al-Hilal - Maulana Abul Kalam Azad

• Vande Mataram (in Urdu) - Lala Lajpat Rai

• Vande Mataram (English) - Bipin Chandrapal

• Vande Mataram (Paris India Society) - Madam Bikaji Cama

• Nation - Gopalakrishna Gokhale

• Exiled Bharat , Mooknayak - Dr. B.R. Ambedkar

• Comrade - Maulana Muhammad Ali

• Bengal Gazette (Calcutta General Advertiser) - James Augustus Hickey

• Bombay Chronicle - Firoz Shah Mehta

• Karma Yogi - Aurobindo Ghosh

• Leader - Madan Mohan Malviya

• Yugantar - Barindra Kumar Ghosh , Bhupendranath Dutta

• National Herald - Jawaharlal Nehru

• The Bengali - Surendranath Banerjee

• Banga Darshan - Bankim Chandra Chatterjee

• Gyan Prakash , Induprakash - Gopal Harideshmukh

Press Council of India

The Press Council of India (PCI) is a body that aims to protect press freedom in India and to raise the standard of news publications and news agencies. The Council consists of a Chairman and 28 members. The Press Council was first established in 1966 through an Act of Parliament . In 1979 , the Council was reformed through another Act. The headquarters of the Press Council is in New Delhi. Justice J.R. Mudholkar was the first Chairman of the Press Council. The PCI is a quasi-judicial body with independent status.

Audit Bureau of Circulations (ABC)

The Audit Bureau of Circulations (ABC) , established in 1948 , is an association of publishing houses , advertisers and advertising agencies. ABC publishes figures on the number of copies of newspapers and periodicals every six months. ABC's registered office is in Mumbai.

Registrar of Newspapers for India

The Registrar of Newspapers for India came into existence on 1 July 1956, on the recommendation of the First Press Commission of 1953. The RNI, commonly known as the Registrar, submits an annual report on newspapers to the government. Its headquarters are in New Delhi.

Publications Division

The Publication Division is headquartered in New Delhi. The Publication Division publishes ' Bal Bharati ' , a Hindi publication for children . It has been publishing since 1948. ' Aajkal ' is a literary magazine published in Hindi and Urdu. ' Yojana ' published by the Publication Division is published in 13 languages. ' Kurukshetra ' ( English & Hindi) is a publication aimed at rural development . Employment News/Rozgar Samachar , which publishes job opportunities in government , semi-government public sector undertakings , banks and universities, is published in English , Hindi and Urdu.

Press Trust of India

The Press Trust of India (PTI) is the largest news agency in India. The Press Trust of India was established on 27 August 1947 and started its operations on 1 February 1949. The Press Trust of India was established in Chennai. Its headquarters are in New Delhi. PTI's services are available in English and Hindi. ' Bhasha ' is the Hindi news service of PTI.

United News of India

United News of India (UNI) is the second largest news agency in India. Bidhan Chandra Roy is the founder of UNI. United News of India was established on 19 December 1959 and started its operations on 21 March 1961. UNI is headquartered in New Delhi. United News of India launched its Hindi news service ' Uni Vartha ' in 1982. UNI Photo Service was launched in 1987. United News of India also launched the world's first Urdu news service ( 1992) .

Indian Literature

Classical Sanskrit

Principles of Buddhism

Jainism principles

Theistic Philosophy ( Shad Darshanas )

Atheist Philosophy

Advaita philosophy

Ancient texts in Sanskrit

Buddhist literature

Jain literature

Dravidian literature

Sangam literature

Gupta literature

Medieval literature

Modern literature

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PSC Study Materials

UPSC Study Materials

Indian Literature

Classical Sanskrit

Principles of Buddhism

Jainism principles

Theistic Philosophy ( Shad Darshanas )

Atheist Philosophy

Advaita philosophy

Ancient texts in Sanskrit

Buddhist literature

Jain literature

Dravidian literature

Sangam literature

Gupta literature

Medieval literature

Modern literature

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