Medical Science
Medical Treatment Systems in India
The different methods and practices used to diagnose, treat, and manage diseases are all included in medical treatment systems. Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, Yoga, Naturopathy, and Homeopathy are the various indigenous medicine treatment systems practiced in India.
Ayurveda
Ayurveda is the oldest and one of the most widely used medical system in india. Like many other medical systems, Ayurveda also pioneered scientific surgery. Sushruta, an Ayurvedic scholar who lived in India about 2600 years ago, was the first to perform scientific surgery. He treated and cured body parts including the eyes through scientific surgery. It is estimated that 121 different types of surgical instruments were used by Ayurvedic scholars in India during Sushruta's time. Ayurveda considers the god Dhanvantari to be the father of surgery. Ayurveda describes Sushruta as the 'father of plastic surgery'. The book 'Sushruta Samhita' written by him is one of the basic texts of Ayurveda. While Atreya is considered a foundational figure in the development of Ayurveda, he is not generally referred to as father of Ayurveda, a title more commonly attributed to Charaka. The veda related to Ayurveda is Atharvaveda.
Homoeopathy
The birth of Homoeopathy was a major milestone in medicine in the early 19th century. The basis of this treatment method is the studies of the German doctor Samuel Hahnemann. He started Homoeopathy by publishing his studies in 1811. Samuel Hahnemann discovered medicines by experimenting on his own body. In 1812, when Typhoid broke out in Paris, Hahnemann's medicine was found to be effective. Thus, Homoeopathy began to gain great popularity. Today, this treatment method is available all over the world. About 40 percent of Homoeopathy medicines are made from plants. Samuel Hahnemann is considered as the father of Homoeopathy.
Siddha Medicine
Siddha medicine is an ancient traditional healing system originating in South India. It is regarded as one of India's oldest medical systems and emphasizes a comprehensive approach to health and wellbeing that takes into account social, psychological, spiritual, and physical factors. Agasthiyar is referred to as father of Siddha Medicine.
Allopathy
Literally, the use of drugs or other means to induce a reaction in the body that will counter act and therefore relieve - the symptoms of a disease. The term is used by practitioners of homeopathy to describe the orthodox system of medicine. They are also called as english medicines. Common allopathic treatments include antibiotics, vaccinations, surgery and chemotherapy. Hippocrates is considered as the father of Allopathy or Modern Medicine.
Yoga
Yoga is a term that has two meanings. It is both (1) a school of thought in the Hindu religion and (2) a system of mental and physical exercise developed by that school. Followers of the yoga school, who are called yogis or yogins, use yoga exercise to achieve their goal of isolation of the soul from the body and mind. The word yoga means discipline in Sanskrit, the classical language of india. According to the yoga school, every human being consists of Prakriti and Purusha. Prakriti includes a person's body, mind and ego. Purusha is pure, empty consciousness - the soul.
Medicines and Drugs
Medicines are small molecular weight chemicals. They are used for diagnosis, prevention and treatment of diseases. Medicines used as drugs can be classified in four ways.
(i) Based on pharmacological properties - This is a classification that is useful for doctors to prescribe medicines for a specific type of disease.
Example - Analgesics, Antiseptics
(ii) Based on the action of medicines - Classification based on the action of a medicine on a specific biochemical process.
Example - Antihistamine medicines are used to block the action of a compound called histamine that causes inflammation in the body.
(iii) Based on chemical structure - Medicines with common structural features will perform similar pharmacological actions.
(iv) Based on molecular targets - The most useful classification for pharmacologists
Therapeutic actions of different classes of drugs
1. Antacids
Overproduction of stomach acid causes ulcers. Antacids are medicines used to reduce high stomach acidity. Example - Ranitidine, Cimetidine
2. Antihistamine
It is a drug used to relieve the symptoms of hay fever and other allergies. It counteracts some of the effects of histamine a substance found in the body of a person. Excess amount of histamine may cause various disorders. Antihistamines have side effects, including drowsiness. Therefore it is dangerous to people who operate heavy machinery or drive. Example - Brompheniramine, Terfenadine
3. Neuroactive Drugs
i. Tranquilizers - Tranquilizer is a drug that calms a person by acting on the nervous system. Tranquilizers belong to a group of drugs called antianxiety and hypnotic drugs. Such drugs were formerly referred to as depressants. They do not cause depression, but will reduce a person's nervous activity. There are two types of tranquilizers - antipsychotic drugs and antianxiety drugs. Antipsychotic drugs are used to treat patients with psychoses. Antianxiety drugs are used to treat various emotional problems, particularly anxiety. Example - Iproniazid, Phenelzine, Meprobamate
ii. Analgesics - A class of drugs that relieve pain. Narcotic Analgesics such as morphine are powerful pain killers that act directly on the brain. Some anesthetics also have analgesic properties. Aspirin and paracetamol are examples of antipyretic analgesics which also reduce fever. These drugs are not addictive but are less potent than narcotics.
4. Antimicrobials
Antimicrobials are drugs that can kill or inhibit the growth of microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi. Example - Antibiotic, Antiseptic, Disinfectant
i. Antibiotic - Antibiotics are used to treat infections in humans and animals. They can inhibit the growth of microorganisms at low concentrations or kill them by interfering with their metabolism. There are two types of antibiotics - Bactericidal (cidal effect) and Bacteriostatic (static effect).
1. Bactericidal - those that kill microorganisms. Example - Penicillin, Aminoglycosides, Ofloxacin
2. Bacteriostatic - resists microorganisms. Example - Erythromycin, Tetracycline, Chloramphenicol
ii. Antiseptic - It is a substance that destroys or stops the growth of germs on living tissue. They are applied to skin to help prevent infection. Doctors use special antiseptic to scrub their hands and to wash the patients skin before surgery. They also spray serious wounds with antiseptics in order to keep them from becoming infected. Example - Dettol, Furacin, Soframycin
iii. Disinfectant - Disinfectants are used on floors, drainage systems, and equipment. The same substance can be used as both antiseptics and disinfectants by varying its concentration. Example - Phenol, Vesphene, Viscodyne
Various Types of Medicines
A drug or medicine is a chemical substance or preparation taken to treat or prevent disease. Drugs can be given to the body in the form of injections, tablets, creams, sprays, or drops. Most drugs are made from natural products. The different types of drugs are listed below.
1. Antivenom
Antivenom is a medication taken/used to reduce the potency of venom from living organisms. It is mainly used to reduce the potency of snake venom.
2. Antacid
Antacids are medicines that are taken to reduce acidity. HCl is the acid in the human digestive system. Acidity is a condition in which the amount of HCl acid in the stomach is increased. The ingredients in antacids are Sodium Bicarbonate, Calcium Carbonate, Aluminum Hydroxide, and Magnesium Hydroxide.
3. Analgesics
Analgesics are drugs that reduce or eliminate pain without causing drowsiness, mental confusion, incoordination, paralysis, or any other neurological disturbances. They are known as painkillers. The part of the brain where analgesics act is the thalamus. The neurotransmitter where analgesics act is the GABA. Analgesics are divided into Non Narcotic Analgesics and Narcotic Analgesics. Aspirin and Paracetamol are examples of Non Narcotic Analgesics and Morphine is example of Narcotic Analgesics.
4. Antipyretics
Antipyretics are medicines taken to reduce fever. They help reduce body temperature. For example - Paracetamol.
5. Antibiotics
Drugs used to prevent growth of bacteria or other germs. In 1928, Alexander Fleming discovered the first effective antibiotic 'penicillin' from a fungus called Penicillium Notatum. Examples of Antibiotics are Penicillin, Ampicillin, Tetracycline and Amoxicillin.
6. Antiseptic
Antiseptics are drugs used to kill germs outside the body. The first antiseptic discovered in the world was Phenol.
7. Tranquilizer
Tranquilizers are drugs used to treat depression and anxiety. Tranquilizers are now used not only in psychiatric treatment but also to calm patients after certain surgeries.
8. Contraceptives
Birth control drugs are mainly mixtures of synthetic estrogens and progesterone or their derivatives. An example of a synthetic progesterone derivative that is most commonly used as an anti-fertility drug is Norethindrone. The estrogen derivative used in combination with a progesterone derivative is Ethynyl.
9. Anthelmintics
Anthelmintics are medicines used to treat infections caused by a broad range of parasites in agriculture, aquaculture, and in some cases for human infections. For example - Albendazole
10. Antihistamine
Antihistamines are drugs used to relieve symptoms of asthma, hay fever and other allergies. Histamine is the cause of common cold and pollen allergies. Excess amount of histamine may cause various disorders. Antihistamines counteract some of the effects of histamine. Example for Antihistamine is Terfenadine.
11. Sedative
Sedative is a drug that decreases the activity of the central nervous system. Sedatives are prescribed mainly to ease anxiety or to produce sleep. Their effect depends on the dosage. When taken in small amounts, the drugs calm a person. Slightly larger doses cause sleep. When used to produce sleep, the drugs are generally called hypnotics. barbiturates and bromides are examples of Sedatives.
12. Anesthetics
Drugs that block sensory nerves and make a patient fully unconscious to prevent him from feeling pain.
13. Hormones
Drugs used to combat hormone deficiency that cause diseases.
14. Narcotics
Drugs that deaden the nervous system and prevent a person from feeling pain.
15. Vaccines
Drugs that are injected to help the body to develop resistance to disease or immunization of the body.
Vaccines
Drugs that are injected to help the body to develop resistance to disease or immunization of the body is called as Vaccine. Immunization is the process of developing immunity against a disease before it occurs. Vaccination is the process of developing immunity by injecting on live or dead cells, its inactivated toxins, or its cell parts of a pathogen before the disease occurs.
Various Vaccines
1. Smallpox Vaccine
Small pox was the disease that led to the discovery of first antiviral vaccine. In 1796, English physician Edward Jenner discovered a vaccine that used active cow-pox to effectively immunize against smallpox. Jenner successfully inoculated an eight year old boy. Jenner named this inoculation 'vaccination' from the latin word 'vaccinia', meaning cow pox. Jenner's method was much safer than earlier vaccines such as Pylarini's. Small Pox is the only disease totally eradicated in 1980 throghout the world by vaccination.
2. B.C.G Vaccine
B.C.G (Bacillus Calmette Guerin) Vaccine is administered to prevent Tuberculosis. The vaccine was developed in 1921 by the french researchers Albert Calmette and Camille Guerin. The name BCG stands for Bacillus Calmette Guerine. BCG is also used experimentally in the treatment of certain cancers. It is made from specially bred and weakened strains of tuberculosis bacteria. Injections of BCG cause the body to build up disease-fighting antibodies that protect against tuberculosis. It is also ineffective among certain populations.
3. D.P.T Vaccine
D.P.T Vaccine (Triple Antigen) is used to prevent diphtheria, pertusis or whooping cough and tetanus. In 1892, Baron Shibasabura Kitasato (Japan), Emil Adolf Von Behring (Germany) and Paul Ehrlich (Germany) produced the diphtheria antitoxin, using antibodies that were produced by animals previously inoculated with it. They found that the inoculation not only prevented the disease but also help to cure it in animal already infected. The 1901 Nobel Prize in medicine and physiology was awarded to Von Behring for this breakthrough and Ehrlich was given the award in 1908 for his work on immunity.
4. M.M.R Vaccine
Measles, Mumps, and Rubella (MMR) Vaccination is another Triple Vaccine. It is used to prevent measles, mumps and rubella. Rubella is also called as German Measles.
5. Rabies Vaccine
Rabies can be prevented by injections discovered by Louis Pasteur. Injections are known as ARV (Anti-Rabies Venom). French chemist Louis Pasteur developed a rabies vaccine as an immunization against the fatal disease and used it for the first time on a human in 1885. A nine year old french boy, had been bitten 14 times by a rabid dog. After Pasteur injected him several times with the pulverized spinal cord of a rabbit that had died of rabies, the boy survived.
6. Rota Vaccine
Rota Vaccine is a mandatory vaccine for children to prevent diarrhea.
7. Polio Vaccine
In 1952 an American microbiologist, Jonas Edward Salk, prepared the first vaccine against poliomyelitis. After trying it with children who had already survived polio and who would therefore be resistant, he inoculated children without a history of the disease. In 1954 the vaccine was produced in large quantities and by 1955, it was being widely used. Salk's vaccine used a dead virus as the immunization agent. In 1957, Albert Sabin, a polish-born American developed, a vaccine that used a live virus and was administered orally. Albert Sabin discovered the Oral Polio Vaccine.
8. HB (Hameophilus Influenzae Type B)
Hib is a vaccine given to children to prevent influenza.
9. Pentavalent Vaccine
It is used to prevent five bacterial diseases which includes Diphtheria, Petrusis, Whooping cough, Tetanus, Hepatitis B and Haemophilus Influenzae B.
10. Corona Vaccine
The corona vaccines are Pfizer vaccine, Covaxin, and Covishield. The Pfizer vaccine is the first vaccine to be approved for emergency use by the WHO. Covaxin is a vaccine developed by Bharat Biotech in collaboration with the Indian Councils of Medical Research. Covishield is a vaccine developed by Oxford University in collaboration with the Serum Institute of India.
11. Cholera Vaccine
Prevention of cholera requires adequate sanitation facilities. A vaccine against illness has been developed by Louis Pasteur in 1880.
12. TB Vaccine
Tuberculosis is an infectious disease that mainly affects the lungs but can also involve other organs. TB Vaccine was discovered by Leon Calmette and Camille Guerin in 1992.
13. Measles Vaccine
Rubeola is the medical name of the disease measles. Measles Vaccine was discovered by John.F.Enders in 1960.
14. Chickenpox Vaccine
Children should be vaccinated after they reach 12 months of age.
Diagnostic Instruments used in Medical Science
1. Electrocardiograph (ECG)
Electrocardiograph (ECG) is an instrument used to diagnose heart disorders. It detects the changes in electrical potential generated by contraction of heart muscles. Each time the heart beats, it produces electrical currents. These currents are responsible for the rate and pattern of contraction of the heart. An electrocardiograph picks up these currents and records them on paper. The electrocardiograph may be connected to a printer, which prints the record. This record is called an electrocardiogram, often abbreviated to ECG. The electrocardiograph may also be conneted to an oscilloscope, an instrument that displays the currents on a TV-type screen. An electrocardiograph contains amplifying and recording equipment. Wires run from the machine to electrodes-strips of metal that conduct electricity.
2. Electroencephalograph (EEG)
Electroencephalograph is an instrument used to measure and record the electrical voltages produced by neurons in the brain. A recording of this electrical activity is called an Electroencephalograph. EEG is used to diagnose epilepsy, encephalities, dimentia and brain tumour. Doctors and neuroscientists use the Electroencephalograph to study normal brain activity, as well as abnormal brain states that are caused by injury, tumour, infection or even death. To record an Electroencephalograph, medical personnel attach electrodes from the Electroencephalograph to the patient's scalp. Hans Berger, a German psychiatrist invented the first Electroencephalograph in 1929 to measure the rhythmical electrical activity of the human brain.
3. Electromyography (EMG)
The process of measuring and recording a muscle's action potential is called electromyography. An electromyography equipment is used to take an EMG, and the resulting record is called an electromyogram. An EMG can be used to analyze the electrical activity of muscle cells both during exercise and during rest. The EMG potentials that are measured fall between 50 µ and 30 millivolts. There are primarily two types of EMG measurements. Surface electrodes are used in the first procedure, and needle electrodes are used in the second. While needle electrodes are used to observe the electrical activity of a limited number of fibers, surface EMG electrodes are used to monitor the electrical activity of muscles in general.
4. Auto Analyser
These are computerised instruments used for biochemical identification of various body fluids such as urea, cholesterol, glucose, protein.
5. Otoscope
It is an instrument used for examining the outer ear and ear drum.
Imaging Instruments used in Medical Science
1. X-Ray
X-rays are one of the most useful forms of energy. Their main use have been in the field of medicine. X-rays find wide use in medicine because they can pass through flesh and produce photographic images of what lies beneath the skin. X-rays also have many uses in science. Scientists now know that X-rays are one of several forms of electromagnetic radiation. The German physicist Wilhelm C.Roentgen discovered X-Rays in 1895.
2. Tomography
Also known as sectional radiography, tomography was invented and patented in France in 1934 by the German inventor Gustave Grossmann. British radiologist Edward Wing Twining adopted the word tomography to describe the technology that reveals details within pre-determined planes of the body in the form of radiographs that blur structures in other planes.
3. Computerized Tomographic Scanning (CT Scanning)
It is an x-ray system used to produce images of various parts of the body, such as the head, chest and abdomen. Doctors use CT images to help diagnose and treat diseases. The technique is also called computer tomography or computerized axial tomography. To produce a CT image, the patient lies on a table that passes through a circular scanning machine called a gantry. The table is positioned so that the organ to be scanned lies in the centre of the gantry.
4. CAT Scanning (Computerized Axial Tomography)
It helps to show condition of soft tissues of body through use of X-Ray. Widely used to image brain tumour. Godfrey Newbold Hounsfield (England) and Allan MacLeod Cormack (South Africa) shared the 1979 Nobel Prize for medicine and physiology for their invention and development of computerized axial tomography (CAT Scan).
5. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
MRI was originally discovered in 1946 independently by Felix Bloch and Purcell. MRI is a diagnostic technique that provide high quality cross sectioned or three dimensional image of the organ without using X-ray or radiation. It uses magnetic field and radio waves. Magnetic Resonance Imaging is a technique used in medicine for producing images of tissues inside the body. Doctors use these images to diagnose some diseases, disorders and injuries. MRI is an important diagnostic tool because it enables doctors to identify abnormal tissue without opening the body through surgery. MRI does not expose the patient to radiation, unlike tests that use x-rays. Also MRI lets doctors see through bones and organs. MRI is safe for most people. But MRI uses a powerful magnet and so cannot be used on people with metal implants, such as pacemakers or artificial joints. An MRI unit consists mainly of a large cylindrical magnet, devices for transmitting and receiving radio waves and a computer. During the examination, the patient lies insides the magnet and a magnetic field is applied to the patient's body.
6. Ultra Sound Scanning (Echography or Sonography)
It is used to reveal the structural anatomy or stone in urinary tract or kidney, widely used in obstetrics.
7. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (NMR)
NMR is used for detection of chemicals such as phosphorus and calcium. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance was independently discovered in 1946 by Swiss-born American physicists Felix Bloch and Edward Purcell, who shared the Nobel Prize for physics in 1952 for their work. The first medical use of NMR was introduced by Erich Odeblad in Sweden in the 1950's. Paul Lauterbur (England) obtained the first NMR image of body tissues in 1973. By 1977, NMR Images were being made of human tissue and soon thereafter of the brain.
8. Endoscope
Instrument used for internal examination by direct vision through a lighted tubes fitted with a system of lens. It is a medical instrument used to examine the interior of a hollow organ or a cavity of the body. Unlike most other medical imaging devices, endoscopes are inserted directly into the organ or cavity being examined. There are several types of endoscopes. Most endoscopes consist of a flexible or rigid hollow tube with a lens at one end. Arnaud designed the first endoscopic lamp used to illuminate the interior of orifices in humans around 1819. He built his instrument with a biconvex lens.
9. Positron Emission Tomography Scan (PET Scan)
Positron Emission Tomography is a technique used to produce images of the chemical activity of the brain and other body tissues. PET enables scientists to observe chemical changes in specific regions of a person's brain while the person performs various tasks, such as listening, thinking or moving an arm or leg. Scientists use PET to compare the brain processes of healthy people and people with diseases of the brain. Research is being done to see if it is possible to use these comparisons to identify abnormalities that underlie various brain disorders. These disorders include such mental illnesses as manic depression and schizophrenia, as well as such conditions as Alzhelmer's disease, cerebral palsy, epilepsy and stroke. PET also helps doctors diagnose certain other disorders, including heart disease and cancer.
Therapeutic Instruments used in Medical Science
1. Pacemaker
It supplies electrical impulses to heart to maintain heartbeat as regular rate. Clarence Walton Lillehei, an American physician built the first pacemaker in 1957. Lillehei's pacemaker was an electric unit that could be inserted in the patient's chest where it would give off an electrical jolt in order to regulate the pace of the heart beat. Pacemaker is a device which uses electrical impulses delivered by electrodes to maintain and regulate the beating of heart-so the primary function of pacemaker is to maintain adequate heart rate. When a condition called ‘heart block’ occurs, the electro conduction system of heart is interrupted and heart’s ability to pump blood is weakened. In such cases physicians normally use pacemakers to stimulate the heart. Pacemaker is an electrical generator that delivers the wanted pulse at an approximate time. Modern pacemakers are externally programmable and allow the cardiologist to select optimum pacing modes for individual patients.
2. Medical Lasers
Lasers are high energy particles of light amplified by stimulated emission of radiation. Lasers are now commonly used in many kind of surgical operations, opthalmology and Oncology.
3. Oxygenator (Heart Lung Machine)
The first heart-lung machine was invented in 1935 by John H.Gibbon, Jr (US) and his wife Mary Gibbon (US). They successfully shut off a cat's heart and lungs and then kept it alive with their machine. The first time they tried it on a human was in 1953. In 1953, the first open heart surgery was performed by using heart lung machine. A simpler more dependable machine was built in 1955 by American physicians Clarence Walton Lillehei and Richard A.DeWall. Their machine was a bubble-oxygenator that oxygenated the blood and removed the carbon dioxide.
4. Blood Dialyser (Artificial Kidney)
The apparatus is elaborate and bulky and it is used for sustaining kidney function when kidney fails. John Jacob Abel, an American biochemist, produced the first useful artificial kidney for laboratory work in 1912. Dutch-born Williem J.Kolff (US) began to work on building an artificial kidney that could be used on humans in 1938. Finally, in 1945, he designed a machine that worked to keep patients alive by filtering out blood urea, a process known as dialysis. Long-term dialysis became possible in 1960 when Belding Scribner (US) developed a Teflon and Silastic shunt that could be left in a patient's wrist over a period of years. This shunt served to connect the artificial kidney machine to the patient.
5. Angioplasty
It is used to open blocked coronory artery vessel through ballooning. It is a technique of opening arteries that have become blocked by deposits of cholesterol, calcium or any other substances. Angioplasty is especially important for patients whose coronary arteries have become critically narrowed. For many such patients this provides an alternative to surgery. In coronary angioplasty, a long tube (catheter) with a balloon attached to it is inserted into the blocked artery. After the long tube enters the narrowed part of the vessel, the balloon is inflated which crushes the deposits against the artery wall.
6. Angiography
An X-ray opaque dye is injected into arteries, and series of X-ray films are taken. Diagnosis of heart wall, valves, ventricles, coronary arteries etc. It is a technique that makes blood vessels visible using X-rays. The X-ray picture that is produced is called an angiogram. It is performed on arteries or veins connected with such structures as the brain, heart, kidneys or legs. Doctors use angiography to determine whether a narrowing of a blood vessel is being caused by a clot or by deposits of such substances as calcium and cholesterol.
Other Biomedical Instruments used in Medical Science
1. Syringe
2. Spirometer
3. Catheter
4. Ophthalmoscope
5. Sphygmomanometer
6. Microscope
7. Laryngoscope
8. Ventillator
Medical Treatment Techniques
1. Appendectomy
Appendicitis is the inflammation of the appendix. Appendicitis is most common in childhood and adolescence. It usually starts with vague pain around the navel that becomes localized in the right lower region of the abdomen. Diarrhoea may also occur. Surgical removal to prevent rupture of the appendix and subsequent peritonitis is usually required. Appendectomy is the surgical removal of inflammed appendix.
2. Cryosurgery
It is a surgical technique of destroying a tissue by extreme cooling. American physician Irving S. Cooper developed the technique of cryosurgery for the purpose of freezing and destroying damaged brain tissue. Cooper tried it on a human for the first time in 1961 to relieve symptoms of Parkinson's disease. The technique also proved to be useful for such purposes as removing cataracts and correcting detached retinas.
3. Cystoscopy
The technique of examining the inside of the urinary bladder using an optical instrument called Cystoscope.
4. Diathermy
Diathermy is a technique of generating heat in a tissue by means of a high frequency electric current. It is a method of treating muscle and joint disorders and other diseases by creating heat energy in tissues beneath the skin. Diathermy is used chiefly to relieve such conditions as muscle aches, muscle strain and pain and inflammation in the joints. In diathermy, an electric current is passed through the body, generating an electromagnetic field. The tissues of the body have different resistances to the flow of electric current. This resistance causes a temperature rise in the tissues.
5. Enterostomy
Enterostomy is a surgical technique of making an artificial opening in the intestines.
6. Gastrectomy
Gastrectomy is the surgical removal of the stomach or part of it in the treatment of tumours or ulcers in stomach.
7. Hypothermia
Hypothermia is a technique to lower body temperature to reduce the body's requirement of oxygen during extended surgery of the brain or heart.
8. Hysterectomy
Hysterectomy is the surgical removal of a women's uterus. This surgery also includes the removal of the fallopian tubes. If only the uterus and fallopian tubes are taken out, the operation is called a subtotal hysterectomy. A total hysterectomy includes the additional removal of the cervix, the so-called neck of the womb. In some cases, the surgeon also removes one or both ovaries.
9. Laparoscopy
Laparoscopy is the examination of the abdominal cavity using an optical instrument called laparoscope. It is a surgical technique used to examine organs and to find out defect and treat certain diseases within the abdomen. Doctors use an instrument called a laparoscope to perform this technique. The laparoscope is a channel for surgical instruments. It is inserted into the abdomen through a small opening made in the abdominal wall. The doctor can observe the liver, gall bladder, spleen. Laparoscopy allows doctors to detect cirrhosis or cancer of the liver and disorders of other abdominal organs and the lining of the abdominal cavity. Surgeons can treat certain diseases by passing special instruments through the laparoscope and moving them in the abdomen.
10. Nephrectomy
Nephrectomy is the surgical removal of diseased or damaged kidney.
11. Oophorectomy
Oophorectomy is the surgical removal of a diseased ovary.
12. Venipuncture
Venipuncture is the puncturing of a vein to inject a drug, blood or other fluids into the vein.
Branches of Medicine
1. Allopathy
2. Anatomy
3. Anesthetics
4. Cardiology
5. Dentistry
6. Dermatology
8. Forensic Science
9. Neurology
10. Ophthalmology
11. Optometry
12. Orthodontics
13. Orthopaedics
14. Osteology
15. Paediatrics
16. Pathology
17. Periodontitis
18. Pharmacology
19. Plastic Surgery
20. Psychology
21. Radiology
22. Speech Therapy
23. Sports Medicine
24. Surgery
25. Veterinary Medicine
Diseases
1. Contagious Diseases
2. Infectious Diseases
3. Bacterial Infections
4. Viral Infections
5. Fungal Infections
6. Parasitic Infections
To be Continued.
