Indian History

Indian History

Prehistory of India

Stone Age

Archaeologists and scholars have traced the history of India back a long way. They have tried to reconstruct the historical evolution of India from the prehistoric period or prehistory. India had a prehistory with the Stone and Iron Ages. The Stone Age is generally classified into three stages. The Paleolithic Age, the Middle Stone Age, and the Neolithic Age. This division is made on the basis of the stone tools used by the people of each period and their way of life.

Paleolithic Age

The first stage of the Stone Age is called the Paleolithic Age. The word is derived from the words 'paleo' and 'lithic'. 'Paleo' means ancient and 'lithic' means stone. The Paleolithic Age flourished during the Ice Age. Paleolithic people used rough, unpolished stone tools. Their main stone tools were hand axes, axes, cleavers, and stone axes. Paleolithic people in India made their weapons from flint. Paleolithic people were hunters and gatherers. They did not produce food. They did not know how to make fire or make pottery. They would move from one place to another in search of food. They lived in natural caves and small shelters built among the treetops.

Mesolithic Age

The transition period from the Paleolithic Age to the Neolithic Age is called the Mesolithic Age. This stage between the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods is believed to have begun in India around 9000 BC. The Mesolithic people used small stone tools known as 'microliths'. Their main weapons were sharp knives, spears and arrows. 'Microliths' were made from flat layers of crystalline rocks. The Mesolithic people were hunters and herders. They lived by hunting, fishing and gathering food. Later, they began to domesticate animals. In the late Middle Ages, some of them also learned to make fire.

Neolithic Age

The Neolithic Age in India is believed to have begun around 6000 BC. The transition to the Neolithic Age occurred at different times in different parts of India. The Neolithic Age was a turning point in human life. It was during this period that humans began to cultivate. They also started domesticating animals. They abandoned their nomadic lifestyle and settled in one place. With this, agricultural villages emerged. These agricultural communities were able to produce crops. They made pottery to store the surplus grains and other things.

Iron Age

At the end of the Neolithic Age, metals were discovered and the 'Iron Age' began. The first metal discovered was copper. Although humans started using copper, stone weapons and tools were not abandoned. Therefore, the period when stone and copper weapons were used is called the Stone Age. Its remains have been found in Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Bengal. The first large villages in India were established by the people of this age. Technology was very advanced in the iron Age. Metallurgy was well known to them. Advances in technology helped people engage in specialized professions. People in the Stone Age and Bronze Age did not have writing skills.

Bronze Age

They discovered the technique of making hard bronze by mixing lead or zinc with copper. Gradually, humans developed the technology to make bronze. As the use of bronze increased, that period came to be known as the Bronze Age.

Ancient History of India

Indus Valley Civilization (3000-1500 BC)

Since it developed in the Indus Valley, this civilization is called the Indus Valley Civilization. Also known as Bronze Age Civilization extended from Northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan to India. It flourished from the river Indus and is one of the ancient civilizations of the world. It is also known as the Harappan civilization. The Indus Valley Civilization was destroyed either by the arrival of the Aryans or by natural disasters. Brick was an important construction material of the Harappan people. Pashupati (Shiva) and goddess are the main worshipped idols of the Harappan people. The dog was an animal that the Indus Valley people domesticated. The Sumerians called the Indus Valley people 'Meluha'. The main food grains of the Harappan civilization were wheat and barley. The main trading center of the Harappan people was Lothal. Iron and horses were unknown to the indus people. The first Harappan city discovered after India's independence was Ropar in Punjab. The Harappan people were the first to cultivate cotton. The places found related to Indus Valley Civilization are as follows.

Harappa: Harappa is the first found place that related to Indus Valley Civilization. It was founded by Daya Ram Sahni in 1921. It is now situated in the northeast Pakistan, about 24 kilometer west of Sahiwal in Punjab on the banks of river Ravi. Harappa is mentioned in Rig Veda in the name of Hariyupiya. It is the only place that we got the evidence of burial of dead body in Cemetery H Culture. 

Mohenjo-Daro: Mohenjo-Daro is an archeological site known as the hill of dead people. It was founded by RD Banerji in 1922. It is now situated at the province of Sindh, Pakistan in Larkana District. Some of the objects found in excavations include assembly halls, a bronze statue dubbed the "Dancing Girl”, a seated stone sculpture "The Priest-King", the Shiva Pashupati seal and others. 

Lothal: Lothal was founded by RS Rao in 1955. It is situated near Gulf of Khambhat in Gujarat. Some of the evidences found in Lothal include sheltered harbor, discovery of copper objects, beads and other semi-precious stones.

Kalibangan: Kalibangan stand for black bangles. A.Ghosh founded the Kalibangan in 1953. He found that all houses in Kalibangan had their own well in that period. Also found evidences of furrowed land, camel bones and wooden furrow. It is located on the southern banks of the Ghaggar. 

Dholavira: Dholavira was founded by RS Deekshith during the period of 1985-1990 and was the last city to get the evidences of Indus Valley Civilization. It is located near Rann of Kutch in Gujarat. Dholavira is flanked by two storm water channels.

Vedic Period (BC 1500 - BC 600)

The period of Aryans is known as Vedic Period. It is divided into two as Early Vedic period (BC 1500 to BC 1000) and the Later Vedic period (BC 1000 to AD 600). The meaning of word Aryan is warrior, knowledgeable and honorable. According to Aryans, Family is the smallest unit. Father got the first place in family. Only One Wife for Man and Women Dowry exists at that time. Child Marriage not allowed. Their main cultivations are Wheat and Barley.

Vedas

The four Vedas are the Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda, and Atharvaveda. Ayurveda (Rigveda), Dhanurveda (Yajurveda), Gandharvaveda (Samaveda), and Arthaveda (Atharvaveda) are known as the "Upavedas"

Rigveda

It is believed that Rig Veda was written in Early Vedic period. Aryans worshipped Water, Wind, Rain, Fire and Thunder- Lightning. They worshipped Indra as the chief lord who was considered as the protector of people. Indra was also known as "Purandara", meaning "the destroyer of fortresses". The main deities based on Rig Veda were Indra, Agni, Soma (the god of plants), Varuna (the god of water), Aryaman, Bhaga and Amsa as Surya, Vayu, Prithvi, Vishnu, Marut (the god of wind) and the Yama (God of Death). The ninth mandala of the Rigveda is entirely dedicated to the god “Soma”. In the Vedic period, “Agni” played a role between man and God.

Rig Veda contains information about the arrival and lifestyle of the Aryans. All the Vedas are written in Sanskrit. The oldest Veda is the Rigveda. The Rigveda begins with "Agnimeela Purohitham". The famous Gayatri Mantra is also in the Rigveda. “Om Tat Saviturvarenyam” is the beginning of the Gayatri Mantra. There are a total of 1028 hymns in the Rig Veda. This is made up of 10 mandalas. The four varnas are discussed in the 'Purusha Sukta' in the tenth mandala. The Rig Veda is considered to be a book written in the Early Vedic period. Sanskrit, the Aryan language, is one of the languages ​​of the Indo-European languages. The Gayatri Mantra was composed by Vishwamitra, an important priest of the Vedic period. The most frequently mentioned river in the Rigveda that no longer exists is Saraswati River and the most frequently mentioned river in the Rigveda that exists is Indus River. Wheat, Barley, Oatmeal, Sesame are the grains mentioned in the Rigveda. 10 Upanishads are there in the Rigveda. The Upaveda of the Rigveda is Ayurveda. The Rigveda is the first work written in an Indo-European language. The Rigveda was translated into English by Max Muller.

Yajurveda

It is believed that Yajur Veda was written between BC 1400 – BC 1000. Yajur Veda is divided into two as Krishna Yajur Veda (Black) and Shukla Yajur Veda (White). Krishna Yajur Veda contains commentaries in prose and Shukla Yajur Veda contains pooja rules and rituals. The Yajurveda describes the rituals and practices of the Aryans. Yajur Veda contains a collection of sacrificial rituals and other rituals. There are 40 chapters in this veda. The Ekaveda is in prose.

Samaveda

Sama Veda mainly given importance to Music. A collection of hymns of 1549 verses taken from the Rigveda had given music. It is known as the book of mantras. The Veda that mainly emphasizes music and deals with music is Samaveda.

Atharvaveda

Atharva Veda, a collection of magic power, magic spells, prayers, apostrophic charms and tentative hymns. In Veda Period, Agni is respected and the position of it is placed between the Human and God. Saraswati River that mentioned in Atharva Veda is now disappeared from Earth whereas Sindhu is the mostly mentioned river. The largest Veda is Atharvaveda. Ayurveda is a system of medicine that sees man as part of nature. It is a part of the Atharva Veda. The Atharva Veda is considered a non-Aryan Veda. "War begins in the human mind" is said in the Atharva Veda.

Puranas, Upanishads, and Epics

■ The main message of the Upanishads is "liberation through knowledge".

■ The Upanishads, which are part of the Vedas, are known as “Vedanta”. There are 108 major Upanishads.

■ The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad is the largest. The Ishavasya is the shortest.

■ “Tattvamasi” is a verse in the Chandogya Upanishad. “Satyameva Jayate” is from the Mundako Upanishad.

■ The epics of India are the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. The Ramayana is the oldest epic. The Mahabharata is the largest.

■ The Mahabharata has 18 Parvas; the Ramayana has 7 Kandas. The author of the Ramayana is Valmiki. Veda Vyasa wrote the Mahabharata.

■ The Mahabharata was known as ‘Jaya Samhita’ and ‘Shatasahasra Samhita’.

■ The famous Aditya Hridaya Mantra is found in the Ramayana and the Bhagavad Gita in the Mahabharata.

■ The Bhagavad Gita is known as the "Soul of the Mahabharata". The Bhagavad Gita is composed of verses 25 to 48 on Bhishma Parva.

■ The Mahabharata war lasted for 18 days. There are 18 main Puranas and 18 sub-Puranas.

■ The Skanda Purana is the largest.

■ The four yugas according to Indian concepts are Krita Yuga, Treta Yuga, Dwapara Yuga and Kali Yuga.

■ Krita Yuga is the longest of the four yugas. Kali Yuga is the shortest.

■ The Bhagavad Gita was translated into English by Charles Wilkins. The Mahabharata was translated into Malayalam by Kodungallur Kunjikuttan Thampuran.

■ There are 14 Manvantaras in total.

■ Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, and Narasimha are the incarnations of Lord Vishnu in the Krita Yuga. Vamana, Parashurama, and Sri Rama are the incarnations of Lord Vishnu in the Treta Yuga. Balarama and Sri Krishna are the incarnations of Lord Vishnu in Dwapara Yuga. Kalki is the incarnation of Lord Vishnu in Kali Yuga.

■ The Mahabharata is known as the fifth Veda.

■ Manusmriti was translated into English by William Jones.

■ “Indian Logic” is known as reasoning. Gautama is the inventor.

■ Kanada is the founder of the Vaisheshika philosophy known as "Indian Atomism". Yoga philosophy is that of Patanjali.

■ Badarayana (Vyasa Muni) is considered the father of Vedanta philosophy.

■ The founder of Advaita Vedanta philosophy was Gaudapada, the guru of Shankaracharya. Advaita Vedanta is a philosophy that is described as the perfection of all Indian philosophies. Shankaracharya was the main propagator of Advaita.

■ Shankaracharya was called the "Modern Buddha". Padmapada was his main disciple.

■ The "Vishishtadvaita" theory is attributed to Ramanuja.

■ Brihaspati was the founder of the Charvaka philosophy, who proclaimed "Eat, Drink, and Be Happy."

■ Dayananda Saraswati was the one who called for "Return to the Vedas."

Buddhism

Gautama Buddha founded the Buddhism. Hinayana and Mahayana are the major sections of Buddhism. Pagoda is the temple of Buddha Religion. The Eightfold Path, Ashtanga Marga is the base of Buddhism. Jataka Tales are the story about earlier lives of Buddha in both human and animal forms. Edwin Arnold, an English poet mentioned Buddha as Light of Asia. Magadhi Prakrit, is supposed to be the language spoken by the Buddha. It is during the Fourth Buddhist Council, Buddhism is divided into two as Hinayana and Mahayana. The Triple Gem of Buddhism is Buddha, Dharma and Sangha. The houses of Buddhist monks are known in the name of viharas and their temples are called as Pagodas. Tripitaka is known as the holy book of Buddhism followers. 

About Buddha

In 563 BC, Siddhartha was born with all kinds of good fortune as the son of Shuddhodhana, the leader of the Shakya dynasty and the ruler of Kapilavastu, and Mayadevi. Since he was born into the Shakya dynasty, he was also known as Shakyamuni. However, Siddhartha was not interested in pleasures from childhood. Siddhartha, who was always thoughtful and silent, makes his father feared that Siddhartha would leave home. So the father married him to Yashodhara at the age of eighteen. He was troubled by the suffering of the people and wanted to find a permanent solution to it. At the age of 29, he left home in search of truth. The incident that Buddha left his house and palace and had taken the sannyasa life is known as Mahaparithyaga. Siddhartha immersed himself in intense meditation to find the ultimate truth. While meditating under a Banyan tree in Bodh Gaya (Bihar), he attained unsurpassed, supreme enlightenment, thus Siddhartha became the Buddha. After enlightenment, the Buddha's first sermon was in Sarnath, near Varanasi. The Buddha's sermon was in the common language of the people, "Ardhamagadhi". He strongly opposed the religious and social evils that existed at that time and the caste system in the Hindu community. Believing that the cause of all human suffering is desire and that only by giving up desire can the problems of life be solved, he proposed the Ashtanga Marga as a solution. This discourse, given to five monks who were previously acquaintances, is called the 'turning of the wheel of Dharma' (Dharma Wheel Operation). This discourse contains the basic principles of Buddhism. The five monks who heard the first discourse also became Buddhists. The Buddha appointed them to spread the Dharma. With this, the 'Sangha' of Buddhist monks came into existence. The Buddha visited many places like Rajagriha, Sravasti, Kosala, and Kapilavastu and preached the Dharma. During this journey, he defeated many opponents of the religion in debate. The Buddha did not discriminate on the basis of wealth, position, or gender. For 45 years, he spread Buddhism among the common people. The Buddha died at the age of eighty (487 BC) in a place called Kushinagar in Uttar Pradesh. The death of Buddha is known in the name of Parinirvana. 

Buddhism is based on the principle of the Eightfold Path. The Three Jewels of Buddhism are the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha. The event when the Buddha renounced everything, left the palace, and took up sannyasa is called the "Great Renunciation." The death of the Buddha is known as "Parinirvana." The Buddhist scriptures are the "Tripitaka".

Buddhist principles

The Buddha proposed a religious doctrine that was in harmony with the realities of life. These were principles that were related to the problems of this world. The basic principles of Buddhism are known as the 'Aryasatya' (Four Noble Truths). They are as follows.

1. Worldly life is full of suffering.

2. Craving is the cause of suffering.

3. The cessation of suffering is the elimination of craving.

4. The Eightfold Path is the way to destroy craving.

Right Belief, Right Thought, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Life, Right Effort, Right Remembrance and Right Meditation are the Eight Fold Path proposed by the Buddha for the cessation of suffering. These were recommended as the path to liberation (nirvana). The Eightfold Path was a middle path. Because it was a path between severe austerities and excessive pleasures. The Buddha believed in the theory of karma. He suggested that karma determines a person's destiny. Therefore, he urged people to lead a pure life for the attainment of liberation. Another fundamental principle of Buddhism is non-violence. The Buddha advised not to harm or kill any living being. The Buddha neither accepted nor rejected the concept of God. Like the Jain monks, the Buddha also prepared a code of conduct for his followers. It prescribed five things.

(1) Do not covet the property of others

(2) Do not be violent

(3) Do not use intoxicants

(4) Do not lie

(5) Do not commit adultery

Buddhism was liberal and democratic. It emphasized equality. The admission of women into the Sangha was an effort to implement equality. The Buddha also strongly opposed the varna system, which undermined the concept of equality. Buddhism put forward a philosophy based on moral virtues such as truth, justice, obedience, charity, and kindness.

Spread of Buddhism

The growth of Buddhism was amazing compared to Jainism. The religion, which was confined to Magadha during the time of Buddha, gradually spread throughout India. By the time of Ashoka, it had crossed the borders of India and become a world religion. The reasons for the spread of Buddhism are as follows.

• One of the main reasons for the growth of Buddhism was the personality of Buddha. As R.S. Sharma states, "He tried to combat evil with goodness and hatred with love". He was not irritated by slander or insults. Edwin Arnold described Buddha as the 'light of Asia'.

• Buddha preached his sermons in Pali, the language of the common people. The Buddhist scriptures were also written in Pali. Buddhism did not give any importance to Sanskrit, which was difficult for the common people to understand. Naturally, the common people were attracted to Buddhism.

• The missionary activities of the Sangha played a decisive role in the spread of Buddhism. The group of monks carried out organized activities to spread Buddhism. Buddhist monks traveled all over the country and engaged in propaganda activities.

• Buddhism had the qualitative advantage of attracting all sections of the society. The emphasis given by Buddhism on moral values ​​made life happy, and the masses were attracted to that religion. Buddhism rejected the caste/varna system. This gave new hopes to the lower castes and they gave full support to Buddhism. Buddhism encouraged trade. Naturally, the religion was able to gain the support of merchants, especially the Vaishyas. Buddhism also attracted foreigners.

• The contributions made by universities like Nalanda and Takshashila also helped the growth of Buddhism.

• Another important reason for the spread of Buddhism was royal support and encouragement. Emperor Ashoka took many steps to spread Buddhism in Central Asia, West Asia, and Sri Lanka. His actions made Buddhism a world religion. Kanishka, Harsha, and the Pala kings were also rulers who made great contributions to the spread of Buddhism.

Buddhist Sangha

Buddha formed a Sangha to train monks and propagate Buddhism. The Sangha was also a forum for laypeople or householders to gather and listen to the teachings of the monks. Buddhist followers were divided into two categories. Bhikkhus and laypeople (monks and householders). The Buddha had made a clear code of conduct for the functioning of the Sangha. Some rules were added later. There were separate Sanghas for monks and nuns. They lived in monasteries known as 'viharas'. Membership in the Sangha was granted to all individuals, regardless of caste, class or gender. Once admitted, they were obliged to faithfully observe all the rules and regulations of the Sangha. They had to take a vow of self-control, poverty and faith. They had to believe in the 'Trinity'. The Trinity is faith in the Buddha, the Dharma and the Sangha. A monk was allowed to possess only three robes, an alms bowl, a needle, footwear, umbrella, and writing materials. They were not allowed to use oils, flowers, perfumes, or mattresses. They were to beg until noon and the rest of the time was to be spent in meditation, discussion, etc. The Sangha functioned in a democratic manner. The Sangha meetings were not to be held without the presence of all members. The Sangha made significant contributions to the spread and growth of Buddhism. The Buddha is fully credited with creating an organizational framework for the systematic propagation of the religion.

Buddhist Literature

Buddhist scriptures are written in the Pali language. Their collection is called the 'Tripitakas'. It has three parts - Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka. The first part of the Tripitaka, the Vinaya Pitaka, has five books. It contains guidelines and rules of conduct for monks. It also contains rules for those seeking new entry into the Sangha. The second part of the Tripitaka, the Sutta Pitaka, is a collection of the Buddha's religious teachings. It is divided into five collections called nikaya. The third part of the Tripitaka, the Abhidhamma Pitaka, explains the precepts of Buddhism. It has eight books. Jataka tales in Buddhist literature describe the lives of bodhisattvas. They tell the stories of the Buddha's past lives (each birth story is called a jataka).

Hinayana and Mahayana

Differences of opinion arose in Buddhism from its infancy. These differences of opinion were expressed in Buddhist councils. Eventually, Buddhism split into two. Buddhist councils were convened with the aim of compiling and unifying the teachings of the Buddha. Differences of opinion also arose in the first Buddhist council held at Rajagriha shortly after the Buddha's death. The third Buddhist council was held at Pataliputra during the reign of Ashoka. The monk Moggaliputta was the president of the council. At this time, differences of opinion in Buddhism were acute. The council tried to end the sectarian tendencies in Buddhism. The council also prepared a book called the Abhidhamma Pitaka. The fourth Buddhist council was held in Kashmir during the reign of Kanishka. Vasumitra was the president and Ashvaghosha was the vice-president. The earlier bitter differences of opinion erupted at this conference. Buddhism split into two sects, Hinayana and Mahayana. The old pure sect of Buddhism was known as Hinayana or lesser vehicle. The Hinayana followed the original teachings of the Buddha. They were also known as Theravadas. The Hinayana did not worship the Buddha as a god. They considered Nirvana to be liberation from birth and death and supreme bliss. The Hinayana scriptures were written in Pali. Hinayana Buddhism gained acceptance in countries such as Ceylon, Burma, and Siam. The new form of Buddhism was known as Mahayana or greater vehicle. The Mahayana formulated new precepts and moral codes. They considered the Buddha as a god and worshipped his image. They prayed to the Buddha for guidance and salvation. Thus, devotion became the basic characteristic of Mahayana Buddhism. They saw salvation as a personal realization. They used Sanskrit to write religious texts. Mahayana Buddhism was most popular in India. It also gained popularity in Afghanistan, Central Asia, China, and Japan.

Buddhist Councils 

There were four major Buddhist Councils that were organised to institutionalise and shape the ideas and philosophy of Buddhist doctrines. The first one being held around 483 BC under the patronage of King Ajatashatru of the Haryanka Dynasty under the Magadha. Mahakasyapa is its president and Rajagriha of Bihar is its Venue. The second buddhist council was held around 383 BC under the patronage of King Kalasoka of the Shishunaga Dynasty. Sabakami is its president and Vaishali of Bihar is its Venue. The third buddhist council was held around 250 BC under the patronage of King Asoka of the Maurya Dynasty. Moggaliputta Tissa is its president and Pataliputra of Patna is its Venue. The fourth buddhist council was held around 72 AD under the patronage of King Kanishka. Vasumitra is its president and Kashmir is its Venue. There are two Buddhist councils (fifth and sixth) organised in the contemporary period. Both councils are held in Burma (Myanmar) in AD 1871 and AD 1954 to commemorate and preserve the Buddha’s teachings and practices.

Decline of Buddhism

Buddhism, which had gained importance both inside and outside India, gradually began to decline. By the 12th century AD, it had almost disappeared from India. There are several reasons for the decline of Buddhism.

• Buddhism emerged as a reaction against Vedic religion. But Buddhism gradually began to deviate from its original principles. The rituals and practices of Brahmanism also entered Buddhism. With this, Buddhism lost its originality.

• The revival of Brahmanism led to the decline of Buddhism. Brahmanism reformed itself to meet the challenge of Buddhism. The Brahmins took steps to protect cattle wealth. They upheld non-violence as the supreme religion. They were also ready to provide certain benefits to the Shudras and women. They accepted Buddha as a god and an incarnation of Vishnu. Buddha images took their place in Hindu temples. With this, many Buddhist followers returned to Hinduism.

• The corrupt practices that had infiltrated Buddhism weakened the religion. Buddhists started worshipping idols, using Sanskrit, and distancing themselves from the mainstream of public life, which disintegrated Buddhism.

• The moral decline of the Buddhist Sangha paved the way for the decline of Buddhism. The monks started living a luxurious life using offerings and donations. The moral decline of the Sangha affected the popularity of Buddhism.

• The split in Buddhism was a major blow to the religion. This broke the unity of Buddhism and affected its strength.

• After Buddha, there was no good leadership to lead the religion. The lack of capable leaders weakened the religion.

• Buddhism also suffered from the loss of royal support and encouragement.

• The growth of the feudal economy also dealt a blow to Buddhism. As feudalism began to grow, the commerce and trade that had helped the growth of Buddhism began to collapse. Foreign invasions also dealt a severe blow to Buddhism. The Huns, Turks, and Afghans attacked Buddhists and destroyed their monasteries. Many Buddhist temples, monasteries, and centers of learning like Nalanda were destroyed.

Buddhist Education and Language

Buddhist monasteries in India were centers of knowledge. Nalanda, Vikramshila, Takshashila, Vallabhi etc. were famous centers of knowledge and education of Buddhism. They gained fame in India and abroad. Students from abroad used to stay and study here. All those who sought knowledge without distinction of caste, religion or class were given admission in Buddhist universities. A.S.Altekar opines that organized public educational institutions emerged in India as a result of the influence of Buddhism. Buddhism encouraged regional languages ​​like Pali, Prakrit, Ardha Magadhi, Tamil etc. Religious texts like Tripitakas and Jataka tales were written in Pali language. Buddhist texts like Deepavamsa and Mahavamsa were also written in Pali.

Jainism

Jainism was one of the important new religions that emerged in the 6th century BC. Jainism also known as Jaina dharma spreads the message of non-violence towards all living beings. According to Jain tradition, Vardhamana Mahavira is not the founder of Jainism. Jains believe that Jainism has 24 Tirthankaras. The word 'Tirthankaras' means a human being who aided in attaining freedom and clarification as an "Arihant" by demolishing their soul-constraining karmas and turn into a role-model and chief for those looking for holy guidance. Rishabha Deva is the first Tirthankara. However, there is no authentic information about the first 22 Tirthankaras. The twenty-third Tirthankara, Parshwanath, and the twenty-fourth and last Tirthankara, Vardhamana Mahavira, were historical men. Parshwanath, who lived in the 8th century BC, formulated the principles of Jainism. He formulated the four basic principles of Jainism. They are as follows.

• Do not commit violence (Ahimsa)

• Do not steal the property of others (Aparigraha)

• Do not acquire wealth (Asteya)

• Do not lie (Satya)

Mahavira added the principle of 'Brahmacharya' to these and formed the 'Five Principles' of Jainism. Many consider Parshwanath, who formulated the basic principles of Jainism, to be the founder of Jainism. Jamali was one of Mahavira's main disciples. The first Jain council was held in Pataliputra in 310 BC. The second Jain council was held in Vallabhi in 453 AD. 

Vardhamana Mahavira (BC 540 - 468)

Vardhamana Mahavira is accepted as the true founder of Jainism. He was born in 540 BC in the village of Kuntala near Vaishali. Mahavira's father, Siddhartha, was the head of the Jantri Kshatriya clan and his mother, Trishla, was a princess of the Lichchhavi clan of Vaishali. Initially, Vardhamana Mahavira led the life of a householder. He married Yashoda. They had a daughter. Mahavira, who was not interested in pleasures of worldly life, he left home at the age of thirty and became a monk. He wandered around for 12 years. Vardhamana Mahavira, who practiced severe penance and meditation, attained the Kaivalya (supreme wisdom) under a sal tree on the banks of the Rijjupalika river in Jrimbhikagrama. After this, he was known as 'Mahavira' (great hero) and 'Jina' (subduer of emotions). Mahavira spent the rest of his life spreading his ideas and forming Jain groups. He visited many places like Kosala, Magadha, Mithila, and Champa. He met Bimbisara and Ajatashatru, the rulers of Magadha. Mahavira died in 468 BC at the age of 72 at a place called Pavapuri near Rajgriha.

Doctrines of Jainism

The five self control principles of Jainism include Ahimsa, Aparigraha, Asteya, Satya and Brahmacharya. The first four of these principles were added by Parshwanath and the fifth was added by Mahavira. The other important principles of Jainism are as follows.

• Vedic rituals are futile.

• God is an illusion. Therefore, there is no benefit in worshipping and performing rituals.

• Karma is the root cause of birth, death, sorrow and suffering. Nirvana (moksha) is liberation from birth and death and suffering. To attain moksha, karma must be pure.

• Karma can be purified by practicing the 'Triple Gems'. The Triple Gems of Jainism are the right vision, knowledge and conduct. In Sanskrit it is Samyak Darshana, Gyana and Charitra.

Spread of Jainism

Although it could not attract the masses like Buddhism, Jainism spread within and outside India. Jainism first spread in the regions of Kosala, Magadha, Videha and Angam. Later it spread to Malwa, Kalinga, Mathura and some parts of South India. The reasons for the growth of Jainism are as follows.

• Mahavira formed a 'Sangha' of his followers to spread the principles of Jainism. This group, which also included women, played an important role in spreading Jainism.

• Kings like Ajatashatru, Chandragupta Maurya, Kharavela and Amoghavarsha gave generous encouragement to Jainism. Chandragupta Maurya is credited with establishing Jainism in South India. It is believed that he converted to Jainism and spent the last years of his life as a Jain ascetic in Karnataka.

• Another reason for the spread of Jainism in South India was the great famine that occurred in Magadha 200 years after the death of Mahavira. Jains who went to South India to escape from famine spread Jainism there.

• The simplicity of Jainism attracted the people. Jainism, which rejected sacrificial rituals and unnecessary rituals, emphasized moral principles. The common people, who could not afford to perform expensive rituals, welcomed Jainism.

• The Jains spread their ideas in the local languages ​​of Prakrit and Ardha Magadhi. This made Jainism popular among the common people.

• The dedicated work of Jain monks also helped in the growth of Jainism.

Digambaras and Svetambaras

Two centuries after the death of Mahavira, a major split occurred in Jainism. The cause of this split was a great famine in Magadha during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya. This famine lasted for 12 years. To deal with the famine, many Jains went to Shravanabelagola in Karnataka under the leadership of Bhadrabahu. At the same time, many Jains stayed in Magadha under the leadership of Sthulabhadra. The Jains who went to Karnataka returned to Magadha after the famine was over. This led to differences of opinion between the two groups. The Jains who returned from Karnataka accused the Jains of Magadha are deviating from the original principles of Jainism. A Jain conference was convened at Pataliputra to resolve the differences of opinion and compile Jain doctrines. But the 'Southern Jains' boycotted it and refused to accept its decisions. With this, Jainism split into two sects. The followers of Bhadrabahu came to be called Digambaras and the Magadhas came to be called Svetambaras.

Decline of Jainism

Over time, Jainism began to decline. However, it did not disappear like Buddhism. Its presence continued in many parts of India. The reasons for the decline of Jainism can be summarized as follows.

• The division in Jainism affected its unity and cohesion. It weakened Jainism.

• The lack of good leadership led to Jainism's decline. After Mahavira, there were few leaders who could provide leadership and guidance to the Jains.

• Jainism did not receive the royal encouragement that Buddhism received. Later, it completely lost the support of the kings.

• The rituals of Jainism were extremely harsh. The strict austerities such as physical torture and fasting were difficult for the common people to follow.

• Jainism did not promote agriculture. Naturally, the religion failed to attract the poor farmers.

• There was no effort on the part of the Jains to overcome the unprecedented mass of Buddhism.

• Jainism quickly became intertwined with Hinduism. As Hinduism adopted many of the ideas of Jainism, the religion lost its identity.

• Buddhism gained popularity through strong missionary activities. The Jains did not have an organization or system for efficient missionary activities.

Jain Literature

Jain literature included both religious and secular works. They were written in Ardha Magadhi and Prakrit. Manuscripts of these works are preserved in Jain temples in Rajasthan and Gujarat. The holy book of the Jains is known as 'Agama siddhanta'. Their primary texts are called purvas. There are fourteen of them. The purvas are divided into 12 sections called 'agamas'. They are written in Prakrit. Digambaras and Svetambaras have their own literary works. These texts are written in Prakrit. Later, they also wrote in Sanskrit. They have contributed to the religious literature of regional languages ​​like Kannada, Tamil and Telugu. 'Jivaka Chintamani', one of the best works in Tamil, is a contribution of a Jain. Some Jain texts were also written in Apabhramsha, a bridge language between Sanskrit and Prakrit.

Influence of Jainism

Jainism has contributed to the history and culture of India. Jainism was the first to try to eliminate the evils of Vedic religion and the caste system. Jainism was able to deal a heavy blow to the sacrificial Vedic religion. Jainism gave great importance to social equality. Everyone was admitted to the Jain Sangha without distinction of caste or colour. Thus, Jainism was able to shake the foundation of Brahmin supremacy and ease the conflicts caused by the caste system. Brahminism was forced to reform itself. Jainism gave great importance to non-violence. It fought strongly against violence against humans and animals. The idea of ​​non-violence became an essential part of Indian culture.

Jainism also gave rise to the growth of commerce. The main occupation of the Jains was trade. They acted as intermediaries in the exchange of manufactured goods. Jains supported money transactions, which Brahmanism opposed. Jains also promoted commercial virtues such as honesty and thrift.

Jain Languages 

The early Jains rejected the Sanskrit language that was promoted by the Brahmins. Instead, they promoted regional languages. The Jains spread their ideas in the Prakrit language spoken by the common people. Their religious scriptures were written in the Ardha Magadha. Thus, the Jains made great contributions to the development of Prakrit language and literature. Many regional languages ​​like Shauraseni emerged from the Prakrit language. Shauraseni paved the way for the development of Marathi. The Jains also promoted the Kannada language. Jain literature includes epics, puranas, novels, plays, dictionaries, grammars, etc. Jainism has made unforgettable contributions in the fields of art, sculpture, and architecture. 

Janapadas

During the Later Vedic period, the tribal political structure collapsed and the nation or Janapadas with geographical boundaries came into being. By the 6th century BC, the concept of 'nation' had gained strength. Many small and large nations centered around new cities emerged during this period. There were many reasons for the formation of these nations.

• The shift from a vedic economy to agriculture was an important factor that paved the way for the formation of nations. As agriculture became the main occupation of the people, people were forced to settle permanently in one place. The area inhabited by people was known as Janapadas. The word Janapadas means the area where people set foot.

• The most important factor that helped in the formation of nations was the use of iron. The use of iron had started to be widespread from the 6th century BC. It was possible to clear forests and plow the land for agriculture with iron tools. New agricultural tools and weapons helped farmers to produce more food grains than they needed. Kings collected agricultural surplus produce from farmers to meet their needs. The agricultural surplus produce could also be sold in the towns that emerged at that time. The agricultural surplus also paved the way for the development of handicrafts. With the manufacture of iron weapons, the warrior class gained strength.

• Urbanization also helped in the formation of nations. As mentioned above, many handicrafts developed with the surplus produce in agriculture. Handicrafts were exchanged for food products. Public centers for the exchange of these gradually emerged. Merchants and artisans welcomed stable nations. People began to be more loyal to the nations or janpadas in which they lived than to tribes.

Mahajanapadas

In the 6th century BC, many independent kingdoms emerged in North India. Among these, there were 16 large kingdoms called 'Mahajanapadas'. The Mahajanapadas were formed by the scientific development of the Janapadas. The 'Mahajanapadas' were the names of the sixteen minor kingdoms in North India. Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala, and Magadh were the principal kingdoms. Anga, Kasi, Saurasena, Panchala, Kuru, Matsya, Chedi, Gandhara, Kamboj, Asmaka, Vajji and Malla were the other kingdoms. There are references to the Mahajanapadas in Buddhist texts (anguthara nikaya, tripitaka). There was no unified system of government in the Mahajanapadas. Most of the countries were monarchies. However, some countries had republics. Often these countries fought each other for political dominance. The political history of India from the 6th century BC onwards is the history of the struggles for supremacy between the Janapadas. Magadh achieved the final victory in this struggle. Magadh grew into an imperial power in India. Kosala was the ruling kingdom while the Buddha lived. Kosala had two cities: Ayodhya and Saketa. Eventually, Magadh took control of Kosala. Girivraja was the initial capital of Magadh, followed by Rajagriha and Pataliputra. Brihadratha was the first known monarch of Magadh. The primary ruler of Magadh was Bimbisara, a contemporary of the Buddha and Mahavira. Ajatasatru created "Pataliputra." During the reign of Ajatasatru, the Buddha and Mahavira were died.

Mahajanapadas and its Capitals

1. Anga - Champa

2. Magadh - Rajgriha (Girivraja)/Pataliputra

3. Kasi - Kasi

4. Vatsa - Kausambi

5. Kosala - Sravasti

6. Saurasena - Mathura

7. Panchala - Ahichchhatra

8. Kuru - Indraprastha

9. Matsya - Viratnagar

10. Chedi - Sothivati/Banda

11. Avanti - Ujjain/Mahishmati

12. Gandhara - Taxila, Purusapura

13. Kamboj - Rajapura

14. Asmaka - Paithan/Pratisthan

15. Vajji - Vaishali

16. Malla - Kusinara

Magadha Empire (BC 600 - BC 321)

Magadha, which was one of the great dynasties, emerged as a major power under the Haryanka dynasty. The Haryanka dynasty was the third ruling dynasty of Magadha that succeeded the Pradyota and Brihadratha dynasties. Bimbisara, Ajatashatru and Udayin of this dynasty raised Magadha to political importance.

Bimbisara (BC 544 - 492)

Bimbisara was a contemporary of Buddha. He used all means to establish his supremacy over Magadha. Bimbisara expanded the boundaries of his kingdom through marriage alliances and invasions. He maintained a strong standing army. The greatest enemies of Magadha were Kosala and Avanti. Bimbisara established friendship with these two kingdoms and made them allies of Magadha. Bimbisara began the expansion of his empire by fighting the Anga kingdom. He conquered many neighboring kingdoms through successive wars. The first capital of Magadha was Rajgriha. Bimbisara ruled the country for 52 years. Ajatashatru was his successor.

Ajatashatru (BC 492 - 460)

Ajatashatru, the son of Bimbisara, seized power by assassinating his father. Ajatashatru also followed his father's policy of imperial expansion. He laid the foundation of the Magadhan Empire through constant attacks. Immediately after coming to power, Ajatashatru engaged in a long war with Kosala. Finally, he defeated the Kosala king and annexed that country to Magadha. He also captured Kashi. Vajji was Ajatashatru's next target. After a long struggle of sixteen years, he was able to capture Vajji. With this, Magadha established its supremacy over eastern India. Ajatashatru believed in Buddhism. Under his patronage, the first Buddhist council was convened near Rajgriha.

Udayin (BC 460 - 444)

After the death of Ajatashatru in 460 BC, his son Udayin became king. He was a Jain. He built a city called 'Kusumapuram' and a fort at Pataligrama at the confluence of the Ganges-Son rivers. Pataligrama later rose to become Pataliputra.

Shishunaga Dynasty

In 413 BC, Shishunaga, the viceroy of Benares, deposed the last Haryanka king. It was Shishunaga who finally defeated Magadha's enemy Avanti. He extended Magadha's power almost to Western India. It was during the reign of Shishunaga's son Kalashoka that the Second Buddhist Council was held (at Vaishali). Shishunaga Dynasty ruled Magadha for half a century. Finally, the Nandas came to power after expelling the Shishunagas.

Nanda Dynasty

The Nandas, who came to power by deposing the Shishunaga dynasty, were the most powerful rulers of Magadha. Mahapadmananda was the founder of the Nanda dynasty. There is also an opinion that the Nanda dynasty was founded by Ugrasena. The Nanda dynasty was the first of the innumerable non-Kshatriya dynasties that ruled in North India. The Puranas say that Mahapadmananda, the founder of the Nanda dynasty, was the son of a Shudra woman. There is an opinion that he was the son of a barber. In any case, he was not a Kshatriya. Magadha became an empire during the Nanda dynasty. Mahapadmananda and his successors conquered many kingdoms such as Panchalam, Kashi, Kalinga, Ashmakam, Kuru, Malla and expanded the boundaries of Magadha. They defeated most of the contemporary kings. Magadha became the most powerful nation during the Nanda dynasty. Therefore, the Nandas are often described as the 'first imperial architects' of India.

Reasons for the success of Magadha

1. Political ambitions of the rulers - The rulers of Magadha, such as Bimbisara, Ajatashatru, Mahapadmananda, etc., wanted to uphold the supremacy of their kingdom. They used all strategies and means to expand the empire.

2. Geographical location - The Ganges and Son rivers on the north-western borders of Magadha, the Vindhya mountain ranges on the south and the Champa river on the east created natural boundaries. This gave Magadha security. This geographical location also helped Magadha to control the Gangetic plains.

3. Natural resources - Magadha was a country rich in natural resources. There were many iron deposits near its first capital, Rajgriha. Therefore, they were able to make superior weapons using iron. None of Magadha's rivals were fortunate enough to have this. Magadha also had copper deposits. The timber needed for the construction of buildings in Magadha and the elephants needed for the army were available from the dense forests.

4. Agricultural progress - The fertile soil of the Ganges valley was suitable for agriculture. Agricultural implements made of iron also helped the growth of agriculture. These factors enabled the farmers to produce a variety of crops and produce agricultural surpluses. The rulers could appropriate the agricultural surpluses in the form of taxes.

5. Location of the capital cities - The two capitals of Magadha were located in strategic locations. The first capital, Rajgriha, was impregnable because it was surrounded by five hills. The second capital, Pataliputra, was located at the confluence of rivers such as the Ganges and the Son, so there were communication facilities to all parts. Pataliputra was a 'water fortress' that could not be easily captured.

6. Military elements - Magadha had some advantages in the military system. Magadha was a country that used elephants in large numbers in wars with neighboring countries. Magadha obtained sufficient elephants from the forests of eastern India. Elephants were used to destroy forts and advance through swampy areas.

Alexander Invasion of India (BC 326)

Alexander the Great is one of the greatest rulers in world history. He was born in 356 BC in Pella, the capital of the Macedonian Empire. His parents were King Philip II of Macedonia and the Queen of Epirus. Since childhood, Alexander had been inspired by the Greek warrior Achilles. Therefore, he carried the Iliad with him wherever he went. In 343 BC, Alexander came under the tutelage of Aristotle. His favorite horse was Bucephalus. In 336 BC, at the age of twenty, Alexander became the ruler of Macedonia. In 334 BC, Alexander began his famous campaigns. After conquering the Persians, he entered Egypt. In 331 BC, he founded a city there called Alexandria. In 326 BC, Alexander invaded India. King Ambhi of Taxila surrendered. Several local kings then surrendered to Alexander without a fight. However, Purushottam (Porus), the ruler of the region between the Jhelum and Chenab rivers, faced Alexander but could not hold his ground. Alexander defeated the Indian king Porus in the Battle of the Hydaspes. Although defeated, Alexander agreed to return the territories he had captured to Porus. In October 326 BC, Alexander returned from India. The expedition encountered many difficulties on its journey to Persia via Afghanistan. He died in Babylonia in 323 BC.

Mauryan Empire (BC 321 – BC 185)

In 321 BC, Chandragupta Maurya founded the Mauryan Empire. Chandragupta's rule brought relief to the people who were struggling with foreign invasions. Chandragupta's son Bindusara succeeded Chandragupta. He led the country to a better economic situation. Bindusara was succeeded by his son Ashoka. After Ashoka, the Mauryan Empire came to the brink of collapse. Ashoka's non-violence and Buddhist principles as a political policy led to the decline of the Mauryan military power and the rise of disintegration in the country. In 185 BC, the last Mauryan king, Brihadratha, was assassinated by his general Pushyamitra. Then, Pushyamitra, a Brahmin, founded the Sunga dynasty. The Mauryan Empire is mentioned in Kautilya's 'Arthashastra', Megasthenes' 'Indica', Visakhadatta's 'Mudrarakshasam', Buddhist and Jain texts, and Ashoka's edicts.

Chandragupta Maurya (321 - 298 BC)

Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of the Mauryan dynasty. In 321 BC, with the help of his advisor and guide, the Brahmin Kautilya (also known as Chanakya and Vishnugupta), he deposed the last Nanda king, Dhanananda, and established the Mauryan dynasty. Chandragupta Maurya's rule also laid the foundation for the establishment of an empire with a centralized administration. 'Indica' is a book that provides descriptions of the reign of Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Mauryan dynasty. Megasthenes was the Greek ambassador in his court. Kautilya's Arthashastra describes the system of governance and politics of the Mauryan Empire. Chandragupta Maurya spent his last days in Sravanabalagola in Karnataka.

Bindusara (298 - 273 BC)

Chandragupta's son Bindusara was also known as 'Amitragatha'. He led the country to a better economic situation. He was also able to expand the boundaries of the empire. He suppressed a rebellion in Takshashila, leaving his son Ashoka behind. Bindusara's greatest achievement was that he maintained the political stability of the Mauryan Empire. Bindusara's son Ashoka became king after Bindusara.

Ashoka (273 - 232 BC)

Ashoka is one of the most famous rulers in Indian history. In 261 BC, Ashoka invaded Kalingam. Ashoka, who had acquired Kalingam, exterminated all the remaining royal relatives. This led to a mental transformation in Ashoka. Ashoka devoted the rest of his life to the propagation of Buddhism and world peace. Ashoka converted to Buddhism at the instigation of the Buddhist ascetic Upagupta. Historians describe Ashoka as the 'Constantine of Buddhism'. Ashoka sent his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra to Ceylon to propagate Buddhism, and sent Chandramati to Nepal. He erected stone inscriptions explaining his principles in many parts of the empire. He ordered his own life according to Buddhist principles. Known as 'Devanam Priya' and 'Priyadarshi Raja', Ashoka elevated Buddhism as the state religion and held the Third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra.

After the Mauryas

After the collapse of the Mauryan Empire, India again witnessed foreign invasions. The political unity established by Chandragupta Maurya disappeared with the collapse of the Mauryan Empire. This invited foreign powers. Foreigners such as the Indo-Greeks (Bactrians), Sakas, Parthians, and Kushans established dominance in different parts of India at different times. Along with this, many small and large kingdoms were formed.

Satavahana Dynasty (BC 230 – AD 224)

Simuha was the founder of the Satavahana dynasty. 'Andhrakars' is another name for the Satavahanas. Andhra Pradesh, one of the Ashoka states, served as their administrative hub. 'Srikakulam' was the capital of the Satavahana dynasty, which Simuha formed after Ashoka's death. Satavahana rulers include Gautamiputra Satakarni, Gautamiputra Yajnaashree, Pulamavi, and others. One significant period in Indian history was the Satavahanas' dominion. The official language was Prakrit. The Satavahanas defended India from foreigners like the Yavanas who sought to establish dominion. The Satavahanas constructed the pillars at Amaravati, Goli, and Nagarjunakonda.

Indo Greek Kingdom (BC 200 – AD 10)

From the 2nd century BC onwards, India was invaded by foreign invaders. The first of these was by the Bactrian Greeks. Bactria (northern Afghanistan), which had been under Greek rule during the time of Alexander, became an independent state in the 3rd century BC. However, the position of the Bactrian rulers was not secure. The Scythians (Sakas) of Central Asia were constantly threatening them. When the Scythian attacks intensified, the Bactrians were forced to move towards India.

The invasion of India was initiated by Demetrius, the ruler of Bactria. The Bactrians who invaded India became known as the Indo-Greeks or Bactrian Greeks. They occupied a large part of northwestern India in the early 2nd century BC. The Indo-Greeks, who had taken control of Punjab and Sindh, are said to have reached Pataliputra.

The most famous of the Indo-Greek rulers was Menander or Milinda. He ruled from 150 to 135 BC. He was able to consolidate Indo-Greek rule in northwestern India. Records say that Menander embraced Buddhism. He was converted to Buddhism by a Buddhist monk named Nagasena. The questions asked by Menander about Buddhism and the answers given by Nagasena to them are recorded in a book. The book is called 'Milinda Panha' or "Questions of Milinda".

The Indo-Greek kingdoms began to collapse with the invasion of the Saka in the 1st century BC. The Indo-Greek rule, which lasted for a century and a half, brought about important changes in Indian art and monetary system. Greek rule introduced Hellenistic art to India, and they built many magnificent buildings. They also introduced small and beautiful objects that displayed their craftsmanship.

The coins of the Indo-Greeks make them historically important. The Indo-Greeks were the first to issue gold coins in India. Coins were issued in the name of kings, and the coins bore images of kings and gods. The history of the Indo-Greeks is reconstructed mainly on the basis of their coins.

Kalinga Dynasty (BC 2nd Century – AD 400)

Kalinga in Orissa was first invaded and occupied by the Nandas and later by Ashoka. Kalinga emerged as an independent state in the 2nd century BC under the Chedi dynasty. Mahadeva Vahana, a Chedi dynasty ruler from Madhya Pradesh, took control of Kalinga following the fall of the Mauryan Empire. The most prominent king of this dynasty was Kharavela. He was the third king of the Chedi dynasty.  Kharavela (176–163 BC), the grandson of Mahadeva Vahana, was the most well-known monarch of that dynasty. The 'Hatikumbha Inscription' discovered in Udayagiri, near to Cuttack, contains information on Kharavela. This inscription is carved on a rock in the Udayagiri near Bhubaneshwar. This inscription in Brahmi script records a brief history of Kharavela's reign. Kharavela maintained the independence of Kalinga by attacking neighboring countries. The Kharavela inscription claims that he extended the length of a canal built during the Nandas' reign and spent a large sum of money for the welfare of his subjects. Kharavela was a Jain follower. He took many steps to promote Jainism. The history of Kalinga after Kharavela's death is unclear.

Saka Dynasty (BC 200  – AD 400)

After the Indo-Greeks, the Saka people established dominance in the northwestern parts of India. The Scythians, a tribe of Central Asia, are referred to as Saka in Indian records. The Saka people were nomads and herders. Later, they turned to agriculture. The Saka people, who had an extraordinary skill in using animals for transportation, became masters of the trade routes. When the land of Central Asia began to dry up, they moved east. However, the Chinese emperor Shi Huangdi built the Great Wall and stopped the Saka people from advancing. With this, the Saka people turned towards Bactria. A section of them settled in Afghanistan, while other branches made raids into India.

The Sakas invaded India in the 1st century BC. They conquered more territory in India than the Indo-Greeks. The Sakas ruled over Punjab, Gandhara, Mathura, western India, and the highlands of the Deccan. The first Saka king in India, Maus, ruled Gandhara (80 BC). Maus' successor, Ases, conquered the Indo-Greek territories. He is associated with the year 58 BC. The most prominent and longest-ruling of the Sakas who came to India was the Sakas of Western India. The Saka rule here lasted for four centuries. The most famous of the Shakas of Western India was Rudradaman (130-150 AD). He is known in history for his renovation of the Sudarshana Lake. This brought great relief to the farmers of Kathiawar who were suffering from drought. Although a foreigner, Rudradaman was the first to compose a long inscription in pure Sanskrit (the Girnar inscription).

The Sakas introduced the "Kshatrapa" (Satrap) system of government in India. According to this, the country was divided into several provinces. The responsibility of provincial administration was entrusted to a military governor known as the "Mahakshatrapa". The provinces were divided into sub-divisions and placed under the control of "Satrapas". The Sakas issued coins. Some of them bear the names of two kings. The arrival of the Sakas, although indirect, paved the way for the beginning of the Vikrama era. It is believed that in 58 BC, a king named Vikramaditya of Ujjain defeated the Sakas (Ases) and a new year called Vikrama era began to celebrate his victory. It is also known as Kritavarsha and Malavavarsha.

Sunga Dynasty (BC 187 – BC 75)

The Sunga were a Brahmin sect of Ujjain who served as officials under the Mauryans. Pushyamitra Sunga, the commander of the last Mauryan king, assassinated his master,  Brihadratha and seized power in 183 BC. He is often described as a strong advocate of Brahmanism. Pushyamitra Sunga is said to have performed two horse sacrifices. Buddhist literature portrays him as a persecutor of Buddhism. These texts accuse Pushyamitra of destroying many Buddhist monasteries and stupas.

Nine people ruled the Sunga kingdom after Pushyamitra. His son and successor, Agnimitra, is the protagonist of Kalidasa's Malavika Agnimitra. Another notable ruler of the Sunga dynasty is Bhagavata. Heliodorus was sent to the court of the Greek king as an ambassador. This shows that the Sungas had friendly relations with the Indo-Greeks. Heliodorus later converted to the Bhagavata religion. The last Sungas ruler, Devabhuti, was a weak ruler. Vasudevakanvan assassinated him and seized power through a conspiracy. This ended the Sungas rule.

The Sungas period witnessed the revival of Brahmanism. The importance of Bhagavata religion also increased during this period. The famous grammarian Patanjali was a contemporary of Pushyamitra. The Sungas period also witnessed the growth of a new art form, completely different from the Mauryan art. The carvings and stupas at Bharhat reflect contemporary Indian life.

Sungas (BC 184-75)

■ Pushyamitra Sunga (BC 184-151)

■ Agnimitra (BC 151-141)

■ Vasujyeshtha (BC 141-131)

■ Vasumitra (BC 131-124)

■ Bhadraka (BC 124-122)

■ Pulindaka (BC 122-119)

■ Ghosha (BC 119-108)

■ Vajramitra (BC 108-94)

■ Bhagavata (BC 94-83)

■ Devabhuti (BC 83-75)

Kanva Dynasty  (BC 75 – BC 28)

The Kanva Dynasty was founded by Vasudeva Kanva. Vasudeva Kanva came to power in BC 75. The last ruler of the Sunga dynasty, Devabhuti was overthrown by Vasudeva Kanva of the Kanva dynasty in BC 75. The Kanva Dynasty continued in power until 28 BC. The rule of the Kanva dynasty was confined to Magadha. There were four kings in this dynasty. They were Vasudeva, Bhumimitra, Narayana, and Sudharma. The last Kanva king, Sudharma, was deposed by the Andhra dynasty, and thus the Kanva dynasty came to an end. Following the fall of the Kanvas, many independent kingdoms came into existence in Ayodhya, Kaushambi, Mathura and Ahichhatra. Many tribal kingdoms that were under the Mauryan rule also gained independence during this period.

Parthians (AD 19 – AD 226)

Following the Sakas, the Parthians established dominance in the northwestern parts of India. The birthplace of the Parthians was Parthia in Persia. Sanskrit texts describe them as 'Pahlavas'. The Parthians who came to India were able to occupy only a small area. The first Parthian king to establish power in India was Mithridates.

Kushan Empire (AD 30 – AD 375)

The Kushan Empire was founded in the 1st century AD by Kadphisus I. The most powerful king of this dynasty was Kanishka, who ruled from 78 to 120 AD. He made 'Purushapuram' (present-day Peshawar) his capital and expanded his empire to Afghanistan and Bactria. Within India, Punjab, Sindh, Kashmir and Uttar Pradesh came under Kanishka's control. The ruins of buildings built by Kanishka in Purushpuram, Takshashila and Mathura can still be seen. Kanishka started the Saka era in 78 AD. The first month of the Saka era is Chaitra and the last month is Phalguna. The Kushans were the first to introduce gold coins in India. The Fourth Buddhist Council was held during Kanishka's reign. Kanishka was the first king to engrave the image of the Buddha on coins. Scholars like Nagarjuna, Ashwaghosha, Vasumitra, Charaka, and Sushruta graced the court of Kanishka.

Sangam Period (BC 300 – AD 300)

The Sangam works provide information about the social structure and agricultural systems that existed at that time. Tamil Nadu was divided into five regions. Regions have unique geographical structures and corresponding labor practices. 

The five regions are Kurunji, Palai, Mullai, Marutham and Neithal. Kurunji is the mountainous region, Palai is the dry region, Mullai is the forest region, Marutham is the arable land in the river valley and Neithal is the coastal region.

The people of Kurunji were known as Kanavas, Vedars and Kooravas. Their main occupations were hunting and gathering food, and animals like elephants, lions, bears and various birds can be seen in the Kurunchithina. Teak, sandalwood and bamboo are the main trees found in this area. Worship god, Cheon.

The two main groups living in the Palai area were the Maravars and the Vettuvars. They could not produce anything in the Palai area. Because it was a dry area. Therefore, they used to rob people for their livelihood. Worship god, Kottavai.

Mullai was a grazing area during the Sangha period. Herding cattle was the main source of livelihood for the inhabitants of this area. They lived by exploiting the forest resources. The people living in this area were shepherds. Worship god, Mayon

The people living in the Marutham were known as Uzhavars or Vellalars. The main occupation of the people here was agriculture. The main crops were paddy, sugarcane, mango, banana, jackfruit, etc. Marutham was the settlement of farmers. Worship god, Venthan.

The coastal region is the Weaving. People like Paratha, Parathiyar, Meenavar, Alavar, and Alathiar lived here. Fishing and salt cultivation were the main occupations. Worship god, Kadlon.

These people lived as communities in various talukas. The products of all the five talukas were used efficiently. The resources produced and collected in each taluka were exchanged. The exchange centers were called markets. Trade networks were formed between the talukas. Rivers provided communication between political centers and port cities. Exchange and foreign trade led to the growth of cities. The bases of kings and chiefs were on the hills. They were provided with military assistance by the Maravas.

Pandya Dynasty (BC 400 – AD 1618)

The Pandya Dynasty is one of the oldest dynasties in South India. The first mention of the Pandyas was made by Megasthenes. He described it as a pearl-producing kingdom. The Ashoka Edicts also mention this kingdom, and the early Pandya kingdom was located at the southern tip of the peninsula. It included the present-day districts of Madurai, Ramnadu, Tirunelveli and Kanyakumari.

The most famous of the Pandya kings was Nedunchezhiyan. Nedunchezhiyan defeated an allied army consisting of the Cheras, Cholas and five Kurunila Mannas. He was victorious in the battle of Thalaiyalankanam near Thiruvallur. With this victory, he came to be known as the Pandyan in Thalaiyalankanam.

Madurai was the capital of the Pandyas. The main ports here were Korkai and Kayal. The Pandya kings made great gains through trade with the Roman Empire. It was these trade relations that prompted them to send envoys to the Roman Emperor Augustus.

The power of the Pandyas declined in the post-Sanga period, and the Pallavas established dominance in South India. However, in the 7th century AD, the Pandya power was restored under the leadership of a king named Katungon. The Pandya kingdom included the present Madurai-Tirunelveli districts. Madurai was the capital of the Pandya kings.

The Pandyas, who rose to power in the 7th century, maintained their power until the 14th century. Their history in between is one of ups and downs. The Pandyas, who established political dominance in the areas from Travancore to the borders of Andhra, were at some point subjected to the domination of other powers, especially the Cholas. It was only when the power of the Cholas waned that the Pandyan kingdom became independent from their domination.

The Pandyas were freed from Chola control during the reign of Maravarman Sundara Pandyan (1216–38). He defeated the Chola king Rajadhiraja III and destroyed the cities of Thanjavur and Urayur by burning them. Maravarman, the most capable of the Pandyan kings, defeated his opponents one by one. He performed many yagnas. He was generous and gave gifts to the Shiva temple in Chidambaram and the Vishnu temple in Srirangam.

Another important ruler of the Pandya kingdom, Maravarman Kulasekara (1263-1310), continued his efforts to expand the borders of the kingdom. It was during his reign that the Venetian traveler Marco Polo visited the Pandya kingdom. Towards the end of Maravarman Kulasekara's reign, a power struggle began between his sons Sundara Pandya and Veera Pandya. It was also during this period that Malik Kafur, the commander of Alauddin Khilji's army, invaded the Pandya kingdom. Ravi Varma Kulasekara, who ruled Venad, took advantage of this opportunity to invade the Pandya kingdom and occupy areas up to Kanchi. Following this, he crowned himself as the emperor of South India. Alauddin Khilji's armies dealt a final blow to the Pandyas. Even Madurai fell into their hands. The Pandyas could not escape this blow. Later, the rulers of Vijayanagara incorporated the Pandyas' territories into their empire, and the Pandya kingdom disappeared.

Chola Dynasty (BC 300 – AD 1279)

The Chola dynasty was one of the dynasties that ruled South India. The Coromandel coast from Nellore to Pudukkottai was part of the Chola kingdom. The Chola kingdom was the area between the Pennar and Vellar rivers. It was located on the eastern coast of South India. The eastern coast is also known as the Coromandel coast. The Chola kingdom included the present-day Thanjavur and Trichinella districts and a part of the old Pudukkottai state. The center of political power of the Cholas was Uraiyur.

Karikala Chola was the most famous of the Chola kings. He defeated his contemporary Chera and Pandya kings in the Battle of Venni. He defeated an enemy alliance formed by nine Kurunila Mannas. The most important event during his reign was the establishment of the city of Puhar. It later became known as Kaveripattana. Karikala was a very capable ruler. He took the initiative to clear forests to make settlements. He also built many ponds for irrigation. The textile trade flourished during this period. He paid special attention to educational matters. He patronized many poets and scholars.

In the 4th century AD, the power of the Cholas waned due to the combined attacks of the Cheras and the Pandyas. After the death of Karikala, internal conflicts arose among the Cholas. As a result, the power of the Cholas waned. With the invasion of the Pallavas from the north, the dominance of the Cholas was completely destroyed. The Cholas disappeared as a political power between the 4th and 9th centuries AD. However, they regained power in the 9th century AD and remained in power until the 13th century.

The Chola Empire was reestablished by Vijayalaya. In 850 AD, he captured Thanjavur and established the Chola Empire by making it his capital. During the reigns of his successors Aditya Chola and Parantaka Chola, the Chola Empire expanded its borders into neighboring countries through wars. The Chola Empire, which lasted for about four centuries, was ruled by eighteen kings. Rajaraja I and Rajendra Chola were prominent among them.

Chera Dynasty (BC 200 – AD 1100)

The Cheras were one of the major powers that dominated Tamil Nadu during the Sangam period. The early Chera empire included the state of Kerala and some parts of Salem-Coimbatore districts. In the first centuries of the Christian era, the Cheras had status and power equal to the Cholas and Pandyas. The first Chera king of the Sangha period was Perumchottu Udiyan Cheralathan. He was a contemporary of Karikala Chola. His successor, Imayavaramban Nedumcheralathan, fought against the Kadambars of Banavasi. He also fought and won against the Yavanas. The most prominent of the early Cheras was Chenguttuvan. He was a great lover of art and literature. He took steps to promote trade and commercial affairs. The Patittupat is a work that throws light on the history of the early Chera kings.

The capital of the early Cheras was Vanchimuthur. The decline of the Chera dynasty was due to the incompetence of the kings. Internal weaknesses and economic crises accelerated the decline. The attacks of the Kalabhra king Achyutavikantha and the dominance of dynasties such as the Chalukyas, Pallavas, Pandyas and Cholas also paved the way for the decline of the Chera kingdom. After the 2nd century AD, the power of the Cheras began to decline. There is no information available about the history of the Chera dynasty until the 8th century AD. However, in the 9th century AD, Chera power was restored. The kings of the later Chera kingdom were known as 'Kulashekaras'. This period is generally referred to by historians as the "Perumal period".

Kulasekhara Azhvar (Kulasekharavarman) was the founder of the Second Chera Kingdom. Their capital was Makothai or Mahodayapuram near Kodungallur. The capital city was situated around the Shiva temple at Thiruvanchikulam. The city of Mahathevar, which was a city of Shiva temples, later became Mahodayapuram. The re-establishment of the Chera Kingdom is associated with the growth of a Brahmin-dominated society. The Brahmins welcomed a monarchy in place of the tribal society. The Chera kings and the Brahmins helped each other and it was beneficial for both groups.

About thirteen kings ruled the Second Chera Kingdom. Their exact chronology is not available. Kulasekara Alwar, the founder of the Second Chera Kingdom  is the author of the Sanskrit poem 'Mukundamala'. He also wrote the famous devotional book in Tamil 'Perumal Thirumozhi'. The second Chera king, Rajashekaravarman, was a devotee of Shiva. He was also known as "Cheramaan Perumal Nayanar". The Kollavarsham, which began in 825 AD, was established during the reign of Rajashekaravarma.

The next Chera emperor, Sthanuravivarman, was the most notable ruler of the Kulasekaras. The famous Tharisappally Edict (Cheppedu) was prepared in 849 AD. The famous astronomer Sankaranarayanan was Sthanuravi's chief scholar. A well-equipped astronomical observatory was functioning under his supervision at Mahodayapuram. Arab travelers like Sulaiman visited Kerala during Sthanuravi's reign.

Bhaskara Ravivarman I was one of the prominent Chera kings who came to power after Sthanuravivarman. The Jewish edict he wrote to Joseph Rabban, the Jewish leader of Mahodayapuram, is a document of great historical importance. It is a royal proclamation granting Joseph Rabban the title of "Anchuvanna" with seventy-two rights.

The Chola-Chera war began during the reign of Bhaskara Ravivarman. The last Chera king, Ramavarma Kulasekharan, strongly resisted the attacks of the Cholas, but could not save the country from disintegration. The prolonged Chola-Chera war led to the decline of Mahodayapuram and the loss of its political importance. Internal problems and external attacks spelled the end of the Chera rule. By the beginning of the twelfth century, the Perumal rule had disappeared.

Pallava Dynasty (AD 275 – AD 897)

The Pallavas of Kanchi were one of the most important dynasties that ruled South India. There is no consensus among historians about the origin of the Pallavas. One school of thought suggests that the Pallavas were a branch of the foreign Parthians, but there is no evidence of the Parthians migrating to South India. Another school of thought argues that the Pallavas were a branch of the Vakadakas, a Brahmin dynasty of the Deccan, but this theory is also unsupported by evidence. Another view is that the Pallavas were a local dynasty that emerged after the collapse of the Ikshvaku kingdom. According to this theory, the Pallavas were Nagas.

It is generally believed that the Pallavas were the original inhabitants of the Thondaimandalam. Thondaimandalam was a province of Ashoka's empire. 'Pallavan' is the Sanskrit form of the Tamil word 'Thondair', hence the inhabitants of Thondaimandalam were known as Pallavas. The Pallava power extended from Krishna to Kaveri. It included southern Andhra and northern Tamil Nadu.

The Pallava dynasty came to political power in the middle of the 3rd century AD. However, their heyday began towards the end of the 6th century. It was Simhavishnu (575-600) who raised the Pallava to a dominant power. He extended the Pallava power up to the Kaveri, and after Simhavishnu, about twelve kings ruled the Pallava kingdom. Prominent among them were Mahendravarman I and Narasimhavarman.

Mahendravarman I (600-630)

Son and successor of Simhavishna, Mahendravarman I was a prominent king of the Pallava dynasty. It was during his reign that the long-running Pallava-Chalukya conflict began. The Chalukya king Pulakeshi II defeated Mahendravarman and captured some territories from the Pallava kingdom. Mahendravarman was unsuccessful in confronting the Chalukya army.

Mahendravarman is known for his cultural contributions. He was a writer, singer, and sculptor. He is the author of the Sanskrit play "Matthavilasa Prahasanam". Mahendravarman is the inventor of the Pallava style of rock-cut temples. This is known as the 'Mahrenda style' in architecture. He built many Shiva and Vishnu temples in places like Tiruchirappalli, Vallam, Mahendravadi, and Arcot.

Mahendravarman encouraged painting. The Jain cave paintings at Shithanavasal (Puthu Kotta district) were created during his time. He adopted the titles 'Chitrakarapuli' and 'Vichitrachithan'. Mahendravarman, who was a Jain, is said to have later converted to Shaivism under the influence of Appar, a Shaivite saint. It is believed that.

Narasimhavarman (630-668)

Narasimhavarman, the successor of Mahendravarman, was the most powerful of the Pallava kings. A skilled warrior and general, he established dominance in South India by defeating the Chola-Chera-Pandya kings. He defeated the Chalukyas. He captured Vatapi by defeating the Chalukya king Pulakesi. In recognition of this victory, Narasimhavarman assumed the title of "Vatapikonda". He sent a naval force to assist Manavarman, who had been deposed from the throne of Ceylon. With the help of the Pallava army, Manavarman regained power.

It is believed that Narasimhavarman founded Mahabalipuram. He established a port at Mahabalipuram which grew into a major trading center. He built some temples in the capital city of Kanchi. He also built the chariot temples at Mahabalipuram. It was during the reign of Narasimhavarman that Hiuen Tsang visited Kanchi. He recorded that Kanchi was a beautiful and prosperous city.

After the death of Narasimhavarman, the Pallava kingdom began to decline. None of his successors, such as Mahendravarman II and Parameswaravarman, could save the Pallava kingdom from collapse. The last Pallava king, Aparajita, was defeated by the Chola king Aditya Chola, and the Pallava dynasty came to an end.

Gupta Empire (AD 320 – AD 550)

After the collapse of the Mauryan Empire, there was no stable government in India until the establishment of the Gupta Empire in 320 AD. Historians describe the Gupta period as the golden age in Indian history. The Gupta Empire was founded by Srigupta. After Srigupta, Ghatotkachagupta ruled. Both of them took the title of 'Maharaja'. The Gupta Empire was described as the 'Land of Brahmins' by the Chinese Buddhist scholar and traveler Fa Hian. The major kings who ruled the Gupta Empire were Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, Ramagupta, Chandragupta II, Kumaragupta I, and Skandagupta.

Chandragupta I (320 - 335 AD)

Chandragupta I was the first notable ruler of the Gupta dynasty. It was during his reign that the Guptas emerged as a powerful political force. Chandragupta assumed the title of 'Maharajadhiraja'. He was the first Gupta emperor to assume this title. Chandragupta is the founder of the Gupta calendar. In 320 AD, he started a new calendar called 'Gupta calendar'. This calendar, which was followed by all his successors, was in use for about 600 years. The Mehrauli inscription praises Chandragupta's achievements.

Samudragupta (335 - 375 AD)

It was Samudragupta, the son and successor of Chandragupta I, who transformed the Gupta Empire into an empire. We get information about Samudragupta's life and achievements from the 'Allahabad Pillar Inscription' written by his general and chief poet Harisena. Samudragupta was not only a skilled warrior. He was also renowned as a skilled statesman, diplomat, scholar and musician. Samudragupta was known as 'Kaviraja'. Coins issued during Samudragupta's reign depict him playing the veena.

Ramagupta (375 - 380 AD)

Samudragupta's successor, Ramagupta, ruled for only five years. Information about Ramagupta is available in the Sanskrit play 'Devi Chandragupta' by Visakhadatta.

Chandragupta II (380 - 413 AD)

The reign of Chandragupta II witnessed the most brilliant period of the Gupta Empire. He is known as Vikramaditya. The coins minted during his reign depict him fighting a lion. Chandragupta II was also known as Devarajan. Chandragupta encouraged art and literature. The court of scholars known as the 'Navaratnams' adorned his court. Kalidasa, Dhanvantari, Kshapanaka, Amarasinha, Shanku, Vetalabhatta, Ghatkarpara, Varahamihira and Vararuchi were known as the Navaratnas. Music, painting and sculpture also made remarkable progress during his reign. The Chinese Buddhist scholar and traveler Fa Hian visited India during Chandragupta's reign.

Kumaragupta I (413–455 AD)

Chandragupta II was succeeded by his son Kumaragupta I. He carefully guarded the inherited empire. He was the one who built the Buddhist monastery at Nalanda. Towards the end of Kumaragupta's reign, the Gupta Empire was attacked by the Hunas and the Pushyamitras.

Skandagupta (455–467 AD)

Kumaragupta's son and successor, Skandagupta, repelled the invaders and saved the Gupta Empire from collapse. Skandagupta was the last strong Gupta emperor.

Major Works of the Gupta Period

■ Kalidasa - Shakuntala, Malavikagnimitra, Vikramorvasiya, Kumarasambhavam, Raghuvansam, Meghadoot, Ritu Samharam

■ Visakhadatta - Mudrarakshasam, Devichandragupta

■ Shudraka - Mricchakadika

■ Bharavi - Kiratarjuniyam

■ Dandi - Kavyadarshanam, Dasakumaracharita

■ Bhasa - Charudatta

■ Subandhu - Vasavadatta

■ Vishnu Sharma - Panchatantra

■ Amarasingha - Amarakosham

Huns Invasion of India (AD 5th - AD 6th century) 

When the Gupta Empire declined, North India and the Deccan regions were divided into many independent kingdoms. Kingdoms such as Malavam and Vakadam gained power. The Huns also became dominant. The Huns were a primitive race that arrived from Central Asia to the central parts of Europe in the 4th century AD. A section of them attacked India and Persia, but Skandagupta defeated them. Later, the Huns, who entered India in large numbers, conquered Gandhara and defeated the Kushans and Shakas. In the 6th century, the Hun leader Toraman conquered Punjab and Rajputana and ruled with the title of 'Maharajadhi Rajan' with Sialkot as the capital. After Toraman, his son Mihirakulan became king in 510 AD. With the death of Mihirakulan, the Hun dynasty declined and was uprooted by the invasion of the Turks. The Gupta Empire collapsed with the arrival of the Huns.

Harshavardhana Empire (AD 606 – AD 647)

The glory and tradition of India that had been shattered after the Gupta period was restored by Harshavardhana, a king of the Pushyabhuti dynasty. Harshavardhana assumed power in 606 AD when he was only 16 years old. The first capital was Thaneswar. Later, the capital was chosen as Kannauj. Harshavardhana is considered to be the last Hindu emperor of North India. It was during Harshavardhana's reign that Xuanzang visited India. In 641 AD, Harshavardhana sent a mission to China. Harshavardhana was also the first Indian ruler to establish diplomatic relations with China. Mahendravarman I and Pulikesi II were contemporaries of Harshavardhana. The Sanskrit plays written by Harshavardhana are Ratnavali, Priyadarshika, and Nagananda. Banabhatta was the main poet in his court. Harshacharitam and Kadambari are works written by Banabhatta. Harshavardhana was defeated by the Chalukya king Pulikesi II in the battle of the Narmada basin.

Nalanda University

The most famous center of learning during Harsha's era was Nalanda University. It was founded by Kumaragupta I. Nalanda was a Buddhist monastery. Later, it grew into one of the highest educational institutions in India. Many valuable information about Nalanda is available from the accounts of Xuanzang. He describes the building of the university, the academic discussions, and the details of the studies.

Nalanda University had all kinds of facilities. There were three libraries with excellent collections: (1) Ratna Sagar (2) Ratnadhati (3) Ratnarajak. There were facilities for staying and studying in Nalanda. About ten thousand students from home and abroad lived and studied there. Many students from China, Korea, Japan, and Mongolia studied at Nalanda. Students were admitted on the basis of merit. An entrance examination was also conducted to assess their intellectual ability. Only those with high knowledge and intelligence were admitted to Nalanda. Xuanzang had the rare privilege of studying and serving as a teacher at Nalanda.

Nalanda University was a corporate body. It was governed democratically. The university's expenses were met by the income from land donated by various kings. Harshan donated 100 villages to Nalanda. The teaching method at Nalanda was quite modern. Discussions and lectures enlivened the study at Nalanda. Grammar, medicine, crafts, logic, and philosophy were compulsory subjects. K.M. Panicker opines that it was a university of high quality comparable to modern-day Cambridge and Oxford.

Rajput Dynasty (AD 647 – AD 1947)

With the death of Harshavardhana, the Rajputs came to power. The major Rajput kingdoms were Kashmir, Malwa, Chedi, Sangal, Gandhara, Sindh, Gujarat, and Kanauj. The Rajputs were Hindus. They had an organized system of governance. There was also progress in the fields of art and literature during this period. Somadeva's Kathasarit Sagaram of Kashmir was composed during this period. The Lingaraja Temple in Bhubaneswar and the temples at Khajuraho are evidence of the artistic beauty of the Rajputs.

Chalukya Dynasty (AD 543 – AD 753)

The Chalukyas were a prominent political power that emerged in the Deccan after the fall of the Satavahanas. They became a dominant power in the 6th century AD. The origin of the Chalukyas is unclear. There were three branches among them;

(1) Western Chalukyas or Chalukyas of Vatapi

(2) Later Western Chalukyas or Chalukyas of Kalyani

(3) Eastern Chalukyas or Chalukyas of Vengi

Chalukyas of Vatapi

The Chalukya rule in Vatapi (Badami) was initiated by Jayasimha. The dynasty he founded was known as the 'Western Chalukyas'. The first powerful king of this dynasty was Pulakeshi I. He made Vatapi his capital and built a fort there.

The most famous ruler of the Western Chalukyas was Pulakeshi II. He was a contemporary of Harsha. His attacks are described in the 'Aihole inscription' written by Pulakeshi's court poet Ravikirti. Pulakeshi fought fiercely against Harsha and defeated him. This was one of his greatest achievements.

The Chera-Chola-Pandya kings had recognized Pulakeshi's supremacy. But he tasted defeat in the encounter with the Pallavas. The Pallava king Narasimhavarman I repeatedly attacked and defeated the Chalukyas and even captured their capital Vatapi. Pulakeshi was killed in a clash with the Pallavas. The supremacy of the Western Chalukyas ended with the defeat of the last Chalukya king, Kirtivarman II, by the Rashtrakuta king Dantidurga (750 AD).

Chalukyas of Kalyani

After their fall, the Chalukyas of Vatapi remained vassals of the Rashtrakutas for two centuries. However, they re-emerged as a powerful political force in the 10th century. In 973 AD, Tailapa defeated the Rashtrakuta king and seized power. With this, Chalukya rule was restored. Kalyani in Maharashtra was the capital of the New Chalukya kingdom. The dynasty founded by Tailapa came to be known as the "Chalukyas of Kalyani".

The most important event of their period was the Chola-Chalukya War. All the kings who succeeded Tailapa had to fight with the Cholas. The most prominent of the Chalukyas of Kalyani was Vikramaditya VI (1076–1126). He continued the war with the Cholas and captured Vengi from Kulothunga Chola. His kingdom extended from the Narmada in the north to the Tungabhadra in the south.

Vikramaditya encouraged art and literature. Bilhana, the author of the 'Vikramankadevacharita', was his chief poet. Vijnanesvara, the author of the 'Mitakshara', lived in Vikramaditya's court. In 1190, the last Chalukya king, Somesvara IV, was deposed by the Yadavas. This brought an end to the Chalukya rule in Kalyani, which had lasted for about a century and a half.

Chalukyas of Vengi

A branch of the Chalukyas ruled the area from Visakhapatnam to Nellore. They were known as the "Eastern Chalukyas" or "Chalukyas of Vengi". This royal family was founded by Vishnuvardhana, the brother of Pulakeshi II. Vishnuvardhana, who was the viceroy of the region of Pishtapuram in Pulakeshi's kingdom, broke away from his brother and established an independent kingdom.

The first capital of the Eastern Chalukyas was Pishtapuram. Later, the capital was shifted to the ancient city of Vengi and finally to Rajamahendri. All the kings who came to power after Vishnuvardhana tried to maintain the influence of the Chalukyas. Shaktivarman was the last prominent king of this dynasty. By the end of the 11th century, the Chalukyas had lost their independence and became vassals of the Cholas.

Rashtrakuta Dynasty (AD 753 – AD 982)

Dantidurga founded the Rashtrakuta Empire. Manyakheta in Gulbarga district of Karnataka is the capital of Rashtrakuta. Amoghavarsha I was the most popular ruler of this empire. Rashtrakuta kings ruled from the Deccan. After Amoghavarsha, the Rashtrakuta dynasty became extinct. The Arab traveler Sulaiman mentions Amoghavarsha I in his work. Amoghavarsha wrote Kavirajamarga, the earliest extant literary work in Kannada, and Prashnottara Ratnamalika, a religious work in Sanskrit. Kavirajamarga is a milestone book in Kannada literature. During his rule he held the title of Nrupathunga. He is also known as the Asoka of South India. Rashtrakuta king, Krishna I built the famous rock – cut Kailashnath Temple in Ellora Caves. It was constructed in the Dravidian style and elaborately carved with fine sculptures. Their king, Krishna – III set up a pillar of victory and a temple at Rameshwaram. Rashtrakutas are credited with the building of cave shrine of Elephanta. It was dedicated to Shiva. Rashtrakuta Empire ruled from AD 753 to AD 982.

Bhakti Movements in South India

The post-Sangam period witnessed some notable changes in the religious sphere. One of them was the rise of the Bhakti movement. The Bhakti movement emerged in the context of the economic downturn after the Sangam period. During this time, the collapse of the economic sector affected the lives of the people. This prompted people to turn to religion and philosophy.

There were also religious reasons for the rise of the Bhakti movement. Jainism and Buddhism had a good influence among the common people. In the post-Sangam period, refined Hinduism also began to gain popularity. Most of the kings of South India promoted refined Hinduism based on Vaishnavism and Shaivism. In this context, the Bhakti movement was conceived to stop the growth of Jainism and Buddhism and to bring the common people closer to Hinduism.

According to traditional Hindu thought, there are three ways to achieve salvation: the way of action, the way of knowledge, and the way of devotion. Of these, the Bhakti movement emphasized the third way. 'Bhakti' means surrendering oneself to a personal god. The founders of the Bhakti movement demanded that one accept one of the deities Vishnu and Shiva as a personal god and surrender to it. The poets and scholars who practiced the Bhakti movement composed hymns and spread their ideas in Tamil, the language of the people. Naturally, they were able to attract the common people to the Bhakti movement.

The Bhakti movement was led by the Alwars and the Nayanars. The Alwars were devotees of Vishnu and the Nayanars were devotees of Shiva. These Vaishnava-Saiva devotees were also first-class poets. They composed devotional hymns about their idols and went around singing them. The Bhakti movement demonstrated religious generosity. It gave the message that God was accessible to everyone, regardless of caste or religion. Therefore, the followers of the Bhakti movement included people from lower castes. The advaita philosphy of Shankaracharya gained wide popularity in hinduism.

Veerashaiva Movement

In the 12th century, another religious movement emerged in South India. It is called Veerashaiva movement. It is also known as the Lingayat movement. Its founders are Basava and Chinnabasava. They lived in the palace of the Kalachuri kings of Karnataka. Lingayat is another form of Shaivism. The Lingayats, who were worshippers of Shaivism, rejected fasting, pilgrimage, and sacrifices. The Lingayats were against the caste system and child marriage. They supported widow remarriage.

Medieval History of India

Bhakthi Movement in North India

The ideas and activities that emerged in the medieval period based on devotion to God are generally called the Bhakti Movement. Bhakti Movement first grew as a popular movement in South India, later spread to North India. Historians point out that the main feature of the Bhakti Movement is the active presence of women in it. Jnaneshwar, Namadeva, Ramananda, Kabir, Guru Nanak, Vallabhacharya, Chaitanya, Mirabai (Rajasthan) and Lal ded (Kashmir) are the prominent propagators of the Bhakti Movement in North India.

Results of the Bhakti Movement

◆ The idea of ​​social equality against caste discrimination was strengthened by the Bhakti Movement.

◆ The idea of ​​equality between men and women began to take shape.

◆ When Kabir and Lal ded, who were backward in caste, led the Bhakti Movement, the idea of ​​social equality gained popularity.

◆ Regional languages ​​developed.

◆ Unethical practices were questioned.

◆ Challenged orthodox Brahminical traditions.

◆ Represented women and the marginalized lower castes.

◆ Contributed to literature and music.

Pratihara Dynasty (AD 730 - AD 1018)

The Pratihara dynasty was a prominent medieval Indian dynasty which ruled over the Kingdom of Gurjara with Kannauj as its capital. The Pratihara Empire flourished with the end of Devapala of the Pala dynasty. Nagabhata I was the founder of Pratihara Dynasty. Nagabhata II became the most powerful ruler in northern India. Nagabhata II defeated Dharmapala, the king of the Pala dynasty, in battle. He was succeeded by his son Ramabhadra. After that, Ramabhadra's son Mihira Bhoja succeeded the throne. Bhoja I was a Pratihara king who received the title 'Adi Varaha' (Mihira Bhojan). Under Bhoja and his successor Mahendrapala I, the Pratihara dynasty reached its peak of prosperity and power. The power of the Pratihara dynasty was weakened by dynastic quarrels. Their last important king, Yashpala, was driven from Kannauj by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1018.

Pala Empire (AD 765 to AD 1161)

The Pala Empire was the empire ruled by the Pala dynasty, (which means "protector" in Bengali and Sanskrit Language) a medieval Indian dynasty which ruled the kingdom of Gauda and Monghyr. The period of Pala is considered as the golden age of Bengal. The Pala dynasty was founded by Gopala in 765 AD. The empire was founded with the election of Gopala by the chiefs of Gauda in late eighth century. Gopalan was the first buddhist king of Bengal. After Gopala, his son Dharmapala ruled. Dharmapala was the most famous ruler of the Pala dynasty. Dharmapala built the Vikramshila University and the Nalanda University was also renovated by him. The Pala Empire ruled from AD 765 to AD 1161.

Hoysala Kingdom (AD 1006 – AD 1346)

The Hoysala dynasty was a prominent medieval dynasty that ruled over a significant part of Karnataka from the 10th to the 14th century. Belur was the earlier capital of Hoysala dynasty. Dorasamudra (present-day Halebid) is the second capital of Hoysala dynasty. Hoysala dynasty constructed the famous Belur, Halebid temples. The Hoysala dynasty, founded by Sala in the 10th century is known for its architectural marvels and literary patronage. The renowned rulers like Vishnuvardhana and Veera Ballala III expanded the territory of kingdom, leaving a lasting impact on the region’s culture and history.

Kakatiya Dynasty (AD 1163 – AD 1323)

The Kakatiya Dynasty was one of the most powerful dynasties in South India. The most important kings of the Kakatiya Dynasty were Prataparudra I and Ganapatideva. Warangal was the headquarters of the Kakatiya Dynasty. The capital was built in Warangal by Prataparudra I. Ganapatideva was the most powerful king of the Kakatiya Dynasty. Rudramadevi was the female ruler of the Kakatiya Dynasty. The Raichur Fort was built during the time of Rudramadevi. The Thousand Pillar Temple in Warangal was built by the Kakatiya Dynasty. The Kakatiya Dynasty fell into disrepute due to constant attacks by the Sultans of Delhi.

Yadava Dynasty (AD 1187 – AD 1317)

The founder of the Yadava Dynasty was Dhritarashtra. Dhritarashtra was the son of Subahu. The capital of the Yadava dynasty was Devagiri. Devagiri is now known as Daulatabad. The Yadava dynasty is a dynasty that claims to be the descendants of Lord Krishna. The most famous ruler of the Yadava dynasty was Simhana II. The Yadava dynasty ended after the defeat of Ramachandra's successor Simhana III by Alauddin Khilji's army.

Vijayanagara Empire (AD 1336 – AD 1646)

Hariharan and Bukan founded Vijayanagara, one of the largest empires in South India, in 1336 AD. Hariharan and Bukan were revenue officers of the Kakatiya king Prataparudra Devan. They were assisted in the establishment of the empire by the ascetic Vidyaranya. The capital of the empire was Vijayanagara, now in Bellary district of Karnataka. The ruins of the Vijayanagara empire are located in Hampi, Karnataka. The Vijayanagara Empire reached its peak during the reign of Krishnadevaraya, who ruled from 1509 to 1529. Krishnadevaraya had a council of ministers known as the 'Ashtadiggajas'. Tenali Raman was also a member of his court. Domingo Paes, a Portuguese traveler, visited Vijayanagara during Krishnadevaraya's reign. Vijayanagara was built on the banks of the Tungabhadra River. The ruins of the Vijayanagara Empire are located in Hampi, Karnataka. Krishnadevaraya was known as Abhinavabhojan and Andhra Bhojan. His work in Telugu is 'Amukta Malyata'. 'Varaham' is a gold coin issued by the rulers of Vijayanagara. The fall of Vijayanagara was due to the Battle of Talikotta in 1565 during the reign of Krishnadevaraya's son-in-law, Aliya Rama raya. The war was fought against a combined army of the Deccan Sultans. The last king of the nominal Vijayanagara Empire was Srirangaraya III (1642–46).

Sultanate dynasties of Delhi

Muhammad Ghazni and Muhammad Ghori

The Arabs came to India by invading the 'Sindh' region. In 712 AD, the Arab army of Muhammad bin Qasim brought the entire northern Indus Valley under their control. In 1000 AD, Muhammad of Ghazni invaded India. Ghazni, who invaded India 17 times, plundered the wealth of India. The Somnath temple in Gujarat was also plundered. Next was the turn of Ghori. In 1176 AD, Ghori conquered the infidel Ismailis of Multan. In 1192, Ghori captured Ajmer and Delhi through the Battle of Tarain. Ghori, who defeated Jayachandran and conquered Kannauj and Benares, brought most of the regions of North India under his control by the dawn of the 13th century and established a Muslim empire in India. After Ghori was assassinated in 1206, his general, Qutbuddin Aibak, ruled independently and established a dynasty called the 'Slave Dynasty'.

1. Slave Dynasty (1206-1290)

The Slave Dynasty was founded by Qutbuddin Aibak, a slave and later a confidant of Muhammad Ghori. The Slave Dynasty is also known by the names Mamluk, Ilbari, Yamini, and Ghulam. He was the first ruler of the Slave Dynasty with the title of 'Sultan' from 1206 to 1210 and is known as 'Lakbhaksh' (donor of lakhs). Although Muhammad Ghori laid the foundation of Muslim rule in India, the Slave Dynasty is considered to be the first Muslim dynasty in India. The construction of the famous Qutub Minar in Delhi was started by Qutbuddin Aibak. Its construction was completed during the reign of another king of the Slave Dynasty, Iltutmish. The most capable ruler of this dynasty was Balban. Balban, who adopted the policy of 'blood and iron', ruthlessly crushed his enemies. Kaikubad was the last ruler of the slave dynasty. Jalaluddin Khilji founded the Khilji dynasty by killing Balban's successor, Kaikubad.

2. Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320)

This dynasty was founded by Jalaluddin Khilji in 1290. The most famous king of this dynasty was Alauddin Khilji. He married Kamala Devi, the widow of the king of Gujarat. Alauddin Khilji was the first to introduce price control and market control in India. Alauddin Khilji's court poet was Amir Khusrau. The dynasty also collapsed when Mubarak Shah, the last king of the Khilji dynasty, was assassinated by Khusro Khan. The Khilji Sultans were of Turkish origin.

3. Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414)

This dynasty was founded by Ghiyasuddin (Gazi Malik) Tughlaq in 1320 after the assassination of Khusro Khan. The most famous of this dynasty was Muhammad bin Tughlaq. Another important ruler of this dynasty was Firoz Shah Tughlaq. He was the one who devised irrigation schemes for agricultural development and imposed a tax called 'Jaziya' on Hindus. After Firoz Shah, the dynasty weakened. In 1398, Timur invaded India during the reign of the last king of the Tughlaq dynasty, Muhammad bin II.

4. Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451)

After the Tughlaq dynasty, the Sayyid dynasty ruled Delhi. This dynasty was founded by Khizr Khan.

5. Lodhi Dynasty (1451-1526)

In 1451, Bahlul Lodhi founded the Lodhi dynasty by defeating the last Sayyid king, Alauddin Alam Shah. Sikandar Lodhi was the most powerful of the Lodhi sultans. He founded Agra. The last king of the Lodhi dynasty, Ibrahim Lodhi, was defeated in the First Battle of Panipat at Panipat and Babur established the Mughal Empire, ending the Sultanate in India.

Bahmani Dynasty (AD 1347 – AD 1527)

The Bahmani dynasty was founded by Alauddin Bahman Shah (Hasan Gangu). Gulbarga was the capital of the Bahmani dynasty. Alauddin Bahman Shah renamed Gulbarga as Ahsanabad. Other famous rulers of the Bahmani dynasty included Firoz Shah Bahmani, Ahmad Shah, Muhammad Gawan, and Kalimullah Shah. Ahmad Shah shifted the capital of the Bahmani dynasty from Gulbarga to Bidar. Muhammad Gawan introduced progressive administrative systems to the Bahmani dynasty. He was known as the 'God of Merchants'. In 1482, Gawan was assassinated and the Bahmani empire was divided into five provinces. Kalimullah Shah was the last Bahmani king. After 1527, the Bahmani Empire was divided into five provinces: Golconda, Bijapur, Ahmednagar, Birar, and Bidar. They were known as the Deccan Sultanates. The Bahmani kingdom served as a cultural bridge between North and South India. The unique cultural tradition of the Bahmani kingdom was followed by later kingdoms. It also influenced the formation of Mughal culture.

Qutb Shahi Dynasty (AD 1518 – AD 1687)

The Qutb Shahi dynasty was a dynasty that ruled Golconda in South India. The members of this dynasty were known as the Qutb Shahis. The city of Hyderabad was founded by Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah from the Qutb Shahi dynasty, who also built the Charminar in 1591. They were Shia Muslims.

Mughal Empire (AD 1526 – AD 1857)

The Mughal dynasty, which lasted from Babur to Bahadur Shah Zafar, ruled India for about three hundred years. The Mughal emperors were brave and cunning. Some were great like Akbar!

Babur was a descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan, who shook the Asian countries. While he was the ruler of Fergana, Lodi's uncle Alam Khan sought Babur's help to fight Ibrahim Lodi, the then Sultan of Delhi. Thus, Babur came to India. The First Battle of Panipat took place. Babur won that battle. Delhi and Agra came under Babur's control. That was the beginning of Mughal rule. Soon he conquered many neighboring countries and became the main ruler of North India. Agra became the capital of Babur.

Babur died in 1530. Babur's eldest son Humayun became the emperor. Although he was a cultured man, he was not a strong ruler. He often lost power and had to wander around as some of his relatives cheated for power. He fell down the stairs of the library and died.

Akbar was the son of Humayun. Akbar, the pride of the Mughal dynasty, is one of the most talented rulers the world has ever seen. Akbar took over the rule at the age of thirteen. Akbar became notable after defeating Hemu in the Second Battle of Panipat. Many kings bowed down to Akbar's military campaigns. The kings of Amber and Chittor surrendered. He conquered the kingdoms one by one. He was not only skilled in war but also in administration. A just ruler, he encouraged artists and scholars. This great ruler, who loved all religions equally, established the religion “Din Ilahi”.

Akbar’s third son, Salim, was a great archer. After Akbar, Salim became the emperor. He took the name Jahangir. The name means conqueror of the world. He was a good ruler, painter and music lover. Jahangir breathed his last seeing his sons fighting for power. After Jahangir, Shah Jahan defeated his brother Shahryar in the struggle for the throne and became emperor. His real name was Khurram. Shah Jahan was a good ruler. But the death of his wife Mumtaz devastated Shah Jahan. The Taj Mahal is a monument built in Agra in memory of Mumtaz, and he breathed his last while imprisoned by his son Aurangzeb.

Shah Jahan's successor, Aurangzeb, was the last great Mughal emperor. Although he was a powerful ruler, he failed to win the love of his subjects. He expelled all the artists from the palace. None of the eleven emperors who succeeded Aurangzeb could strengthen the empire. Finally, the three and a half centuries of Mughal rule ended forever in the face of the unyielding British imperial power. After the Third Battle of Panipat, the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II became a pensioner of the English. Bahadur Shah Zafar was exiled by the British for leading the Sepoy Mutiny in 1857.

Sur Dynasty (AD 1540 – AD 1556)

Sher Shah was the founder and most powerful ruler of the Sur dynasty. His real name was Farid Khan. Sher Shah defeated Humayun in the Battle of Chausa in 1539 and took control of Delhi. His reign lasted from 1540 to 1545. The currency issued during Sher Shah's reign, called the Rupee, is the predecessor of the present rupee. Sher Shah issued gold coins called Mohar and copper coins called Dam. The Grand Trunk Road was renovated under the name Sadaq-i-Azam during his reign. He made the horse-borne postal system effective in India. To ensure the quality of horses, he introduced the system of stamping horses (Dag system). Sher Shah was killed in 1545 at Kalinjar in Bundelkhand. The tomb is located in Sasaram, Bihar. Adil Shah Suri was the last king of the Sur dynasty.

Mughal Kings

The Mughals were the descendants of the Central Asian emperor Timur through their father and the Mongol ruler Genghis Khan through their mother. The Mughals, who made their presence known in the Indian subcontinent from the 15th century, were the longest-ruling and most powerful empires in India. They were far ahead in terms of administrative system and power.

Babur

Babur, who defeated the Lodi and founded a new dynasty called Mughal Empire, also conquered the Afghan lords and expanded his empire. Babur was the first to use artillery in India. This was in the Battle of Panipat in 1526. He defeated Sangrama Singha (Rana Singha) of Mewar in the Battle of Khanwa in 1527. Babur then expanded the Mughal Empire. 'Tusuki-i-Babri' is Babur's autobiography written in Turkish.

Humayun

Babur's eldest son Humayun was his successor. He was neither a statesman nor a warrior. Although intelligent and cultured, he was lazy and extravagant. Sher Shah, an Afghan chieftain of Chunar and a Sur clan, attacked and defeated him at Chausa near Buxar. Abandoned by his relatives and soldiers, Humayun wandered for a long time. Taking advantage of the disunity that grew among the Afghans after Sher Shah's death, Humayun recaptured Delhi with the help of the Persian king. He died in 1556.

Akbar

Akbar is the most famous Mughal emperor. He ruled from 1556 to 1605 and is the son of Humayun. This illiterate Mughal emperor implemented many popular administrative reforms and unified the Mughal Empire. He started the 'Ilahi Calendar' in 1583. Akbar was assisted in administrative matters by Bairam Khan. He defeated Maharana Pratap Singh of Mewar in the Battle of Khaltighat in 1576. Akbar then conquered areas such as Gujarat, Bihar, and Bengal. Akbar built the Agra Fort and the Panchmahal. Akbar died in 1605.

Jahangir

After Akbar's death, his eldest son Jahangir ascended the throne. Following his father's policies, he installed a 'chain of command' in the Agra Fort and on a granite pillar on the banks of the Yamuna. He killed the fifth Sikh Guru, Arjan Singh, for misleading his son (Khusrau). He established dominance in Mewar and the Deccan. During the reign of Jahangir, the ambassadors of King James I of England, Captain William Hawkins and Sir Thomas Roe, arrived in India. Jahangir was assisted in his administrative affairs by his wife Nur Jahan (Meharunnis). 'Tuzuki Jahangiri' is his memoirs, which he had a taste for literature. Mughal painting also flourished during this period. It was Jahangir who built the Shalimar and Nishant gardens in Kashmir.

Shah Jahan

Jahangir's son, Prince Khurram, is known as Shah Jahan. His reign was the golden age of the Mughal dynasty. He was also known as the 'King of Architects' after building the Taj Mahal, the Jama Masjid and the Red Fort. Other buildings built by Shah Jahan include the Diwan-e-Aam, Diwan-e-Khas, Moti Masjid, and Jahangir's Tomb. Shah Jahan was imprisoned by his son Aurangzeb. He spent eight years in the Agra Fort and was buried in the Taj Mahal, the tomb of his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal. The famous Peacock Throne was made by Shah Jahan.

Aurangzeb

After Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb became the emperor of Delhi. He mercilessly killed his brothers and expanded his empire with his administrative skills. He reintroduced the tax 'Jaziya', which had been abolished by Akbar. He was known as the 'living ascetic'. The Mughal dynasty disintegrated during the reign of Aurangzeb. He died in 1707. His tomb is located in Daulatabad. The history of the Mughal dynasty ended when the last king of the Mughal dynasty, Bahadur Shah II, was exiled by the British after the 1857 revolt.

Sikhism (AD 1499 – AD 1708)

Guru Nanak is the founder of Sikhism. Guru Nanak was born in Talwandi in 1469. Guru Granth Sahib is the holy scripture of the Sikhs. The Golden Temple in Amritsar is an important temple of the Sikhs. The Golden Temple in Amritsar was known as 'Harmandir Sahib'. The holy city of Amritsar was built by Guru Ram Das. The Golden Temple in Amritsar was built by Guru Arjan Dev. Guru Angat, the second Guru of the Sikhs, was the inventor of the Gurmukhi script. Guru Gobind Singh was the last Guru of the Sikhs. He was also the one who formed the Khalsa.

Maratha Empire (AD 1674 –AD 1818)

Shivaji was the founder of the Maratha Empire. He was noted as a protector of Hinduism and an excellent administrator. Shivaji was able to unite the scattered Marathas and build a strong Hindu state. Shivaji, who was installed as Chhatrapati at Raigad in 1674, established a good system of administration. There was an advisory council called 'Ashtapradhan' to advise and assist Shivaji in administrative matters. Balaji Vishwanath was the first Peshwa (Prime Minister) of the Maratha Empire. The Third Battle of Panipat, which took place in 1761, when Balaji Bajirao was the Peshwa, destroyed the Maratha Empire.

Mysore Kingdom (AD 1399 – AD 1950)

Mysore Kingdom was a South Indian kingdom founded by the Wodeyar dynasty in 1399 AD. This dynasty was founded by a king named Yadurayar, who ruled Mysore. Srirangapatna was the capital of the Wodeyar kings. The country became independent after the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565. In the 18th century, the Wodeyar dynasty was defeated by Hyder Ali. Hyder Ali was succeeded by Tipu Sultan. The brave Tipu strongly opposed the British atrocities. However, he finally bowed down to the British power. With that, the British handed over the rule to the Wodeyar dynasty. The Wodeyar dynasty ruled the Kingdom of Mysore until India gained independence.

East India Companies

The Portuguese sailor Gama was the one who led the Europeans' efforts to find a shipping route to India. He arrived in India in 1498. The Dutch, English, and French followed the Portuguese. Initially, the only goal of the foreigners was trade. But later, their desire to seize power in India, which was scattered into many princely states, led to many wars. Britain was the complete winner. On December 31, 1600, the British established the East India Company. When the English East India Company was formed, Akbar was the Emperor of India. Another name for the English East India Company was 'John's Company'. It was a joint stock company. The company, which was formed in 1600, was granted an English Royal Charter by Queen Elizabeth I on December 31, 1600. The company initially had 125 shareholders and a capital of 72,000 British pounds. The Dutch East India Company was formed in 1602. The French East India Company also came into existence in 1664.

Battle of Plassey

As the Mughal Empire began to decline in the 1740s, Britain defeated all other foreign powers and gained control of India. Bengal was the first stronghold of the British in India. They abused their rights to trade and began building a fort in Calcutta. They also imposed taxes on Indian goods to Calcutta. This action by the British angered the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daulah. In 1756, he captured the British factory in Kasimbazar and attacked and captured Fort William in Calcutta. Then, a British army led by Robert Clive set out from Madras to capture Calcutta. In order to deceive and defeat the Nawab, the British bribed many of his courtiers, including the powerful Mir Jafar.

In June 1757, the Nawab's army and the British army clashed at a place called Plassey, near Murshidabad. The Nawab's army was led by those who had already made a secret agreement with the british. Therefore, the British won easily. Siraj-ud-Daulah was killed through Mir Jafar's treachery. Then the British appointed Mir Jafar as the ruler of Bengal. The Battle of Plassey laid the foundation for British rule in India.

Battle of Buxar

After the Battle of Plassey, Mir Jafar gave millions of rupees to Robert Clive and the East India Company as a reward for making him the Nawab. They kept demanding more. Mir Jafar was saddened when he realized that the British were planning to drain the entire wealth of Bengal. In 1760, the British replaced Mir Jafar with Mir Qasim. Mir Qasim was Mir Jafar's father-in-law. Thus, Mir Jafar, who had betrayed Siraj-ud-Daulah, was betrayed by the British within three years.

The new ruler of Bengal, Mir Qasim, gave the British many times more money than Mir Jafar had given. However, they did not stop demanding more money and made the lives of the common people of Bengal miserable. When the Nawab's cooperation waned, the British declared war on him. Mir Qasim decided to fight the British bravely. Thus, the stage was set for another war.

Mir Qasim was defeated in the battles with the British. In 1763, he entered Awadh (Uttar Pradesh) and formed an alliance with the Nawab of Awadh, Shuja-ud-Daulah, and the Mughal emperor Shah Alam. In October 1764, they attacked the British army at Buxar. However, they were defeated by the strong British force. Mir Qasim, who fled, was never heard from again. Shuja-ud-Daulah sought refuge in a neighboring country, and Shah Alam made peace with the British.

British Rule in India

The Battle of Plassey in 1757 was the battle that laid the foundation for British rule in India. Robert Clive led the British army in the Battle of Plassey. Bengal was the first territory in India that the British ruled. Although there was a nominal Nawab, all the power was with the British. Under Robert Clive, who was appointed as the first Governor of Bengal, the East India Company controlled tax collection and other matters. In 1765, Robert Clive introduced diarchy in Bengal. The Battle of Buxar was fought during the reign of Henry Vansittart, who was appointed as the Governor of Bengal after Robert Clive. The Battle of Buxar was a battle that solidified the British dominance in India. They bought 50 lakh rupees from the Nawab of Awadh, who fought against the British. Between 1766 and 1768, the British exploited Rs 50 crore from Bengal. As a result, Bengal was in the grip of a severe famine in 1770.

Diarchy

After the Battle of Buxar, in 1765, the English East India Company made Mir Jafar's second son, Nizam-ud-Daulah, the Nawab of Bengal. The Company then made the Nawab sign a treaty. According to this, most of the Nawab's army was disbanded. It was also agreed that the administration would be carried out by a deputy subedar appointed by the Company. The Company acquired the power to collect taxes (Diwani) in the regions of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa from the Mughal ruler Shah Alam II. The Company collected taxes directly and controlled the police and judicial powers through the deputy subedar. This was known as 'Diarchy'.

Systems implemented in British India

Zamindari System

The Zamindari or Permanent Land Tax System was a land tax system implemented by Lord Cornwallis in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa in 1793. According to this, the right to collect taxes was given to some individuals or tax collectors in exchange for a share of the zamindars to the government. All public land came under their control. The amount that farmers had to pay as tax under the permanent land tax system was sixty percent of the yield. John Shore was an official who played a major role in formulating the permanent land tax system.

Ryotwari System

Ryotwari was a land tax system implemented by Thomas Munro in Madras and later in Bombay State in 1818. This law recognized the farmers as owners. They had to pay a high rent to the government. Ryotwari was a land tax system in which the government collected taxes directly from the farmers. The government had the power to evict them.

Mahalwari System

The Mahalwari system was implemented in northwestern India. Under the Mahalwari system, the villagers could own the entire agricultural land in the village. The land tax was determined for the village as a whole. The village headman was responsible for collecting the tax. For this, the village headman received a five percent commission.

Subsidiary Alliance system

The British implemented the Subsidiary Alliance system when Lord Wellesley was the Governor-General (1798 - 1805). The Indian ruler who entered into an alliance had to maintain a permanent British army within his territory, pay a sum for its expenses, and appoint a British representative (resident) in his country. The agreement stipulated that no other European would be appointed without the consent of the British and that no peace talks would be entered into with another Indian ruler without consulting the Governor-General. Instead, the British took on the responsibility of protecting it from enemies. The Nizam of Hyderabad was the first to join the Subsidiary Alliance system.

Doctrine of Lapse

It was customary in India for a king to adopt children from other royal families if he had no children and raise them. However, the British used their power to implement another law. The law was that if the ruler of a princely state died without heirs, that country would come under British rule! The Doctrine of Lapse was implemented when Lord Dalhousie was the Governor General (1848 - 56). This meant that a princely state without an heir had no right to adopt children. Thus, the princely state without heirs was annexed to British India. Through this law, the British annexed many small states to their empire. Thus, the first princely state to be annexed by the British was Satara (1848). Jaipur, Sambalpur (1849), Bhagat (1850), Chhota Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853), and Nagpur (1854) were also annexed to British India in this manner.

Early Rebellions against British Rule in India

Fakir Sannyasi Rebellion

The Fakir Sannyasi Rebellion was one of the struggles that shook the British in India. It was a rebellion against the British led by religious leaders in Bengal in the late 18th century. The rebellion continued for three decades. The rebellion, which lasted from 1763 to 1800, was led by Muslim ascetics. Hindus also participated in the rebellion. The leaders, Bhawanipathak and Devi Chaudharani, were Hindus. Dismissed soldiers, farmers who paid heavy taxes, and zamindars whose lands were unjustly seized by the British, all rallied behind the ascetics. The monks believed that it was their duty to fight for the suffering people. The people fought the British with the weapons they had at their disposal. Majnushah was the leader who defeated the British through guerrilla warfare. The rebellion, which gradually subsided by beating up tax collectors and destroying British bases, gradually subsided.

Anglo-Mysore Wars

Hyder Ali of Mysore and his son Tipu Sultan were the rulers of south india who fiercely resisted the British through the Anglo-Mysore Wars.

First Mysore War (1767-1769)

Hyder Ali clashed with the British several times in the First Mysore War, which took place from 1767 to 1769. Finally, the British made peace with them.

Second Mysore War (1780-1784)

In 1780, Hyder Ali started fighting again. The British, who had been defeated by him many times, defeated Hyder Ali in 1781. After Hyder Ali's death, Tipu Sultan attacked the British who had planned to attack Mysore with about 5,000 soldiers. Realizing that Tipu could not be defeated by military force, the British brought the Nizam of Hyderabad and the Maratha rulers to their side. In addition, they assigned many spies to Tipu's army.

Third Mysore War (1790-1792)

The growth of Mysore, which was the richest state in South India, threatened the Nizam of Hyderabad and the Peshwa of Maratha. It was in this situation that the British also started trying to subdue Tipu. In the Third Mysore War that took place in 1789, the British army clashed with Tipu's army near Srirangapatna. The Mysore army fought bravely, but when the attack from Hyderabad and the Marathas came, Tipu was defeated. As demanded by the enemy, he had to sign the 'Treaty of Srirangapatna'. Accordingly, he lost about half of the territories of Mysore. As if that were not enough, Tipu had to pay a huge amount of compensation to the British. About 3.3 crore rupees!

Fourth Mysore War (1798-1799)

Tipu immediately paid the British one crore rupees out of the huge compensation. Until the rest of the amount was paid, the British took Tipu's two sons as hostages and imprisoned them in the Vellore Fort. The ruined country and the unpayable debt forced Tipu to fight against the British again. However, his own bodyguard, Mir Sadiq, had already turned into a British spy. Unaware of this, Tipu clashed with the British army near Srirangapatna. Tipu fought bravely, but the spies changed the course of the war. Defeated again, Tipu retreated from the battlefield and hid in the Srirangapatna fort. But Mir Sadiq told the British the secret route to the fort. Tipu died a heroic death in the ensuing battle. With this battle in 1799, British rule in South India was strengthened.

Kattabomman Revolt

Veera Pandya Kattabomman, the ruler of Tirunelveli, was a vassal of the Nawab of Karnataka. He had loyal and brave tribal followers. Following the attack by the Company army, the Carnatic Nawab surrendered. But Kattabomman and his assistants did not surrender. They hid in the jungle. Realizing that an attack in the jungle was unwise, the Company army made a peace treaty with Kattabomman. However, the Company army, having learned of Kattabomman's hideout, violated the terms of the treaty and attacked him. Kattabomman and his followers fought back with bows and arrows for some time. However, his friend, the Raja of Pudukkottai, took a bribe from the Company army and betrayed Kattabomman. The English captured him and hanged him.

Vellore Mutiny

The brutality shown to Tipu by the British became a topic of discussion not only in Mysore but also in neighboring countries. Angered by this, a group of patriotic sepoys of the English army attacked the Vellore Fort. However, the English army, which arrived in force, killed all the sepoys. This incident is known as the 'Vellore Rebellion'. The Vellore Rebellion began in July 1806.

Paika Rebellion

The Gajapati kings had leased agricultural land to the Paika community of Odisha. This was the result of the Paika Uprising, which broke out in 1803 after the British East India Company was dissolved. An armed uprising broke out in 1817 under the leadership of Bakshi Jagabandhu. However, the East India Company suppressed the uprising. 

Kittur Uprising

The Kittur Uprising was a revolt that broke out in 1824 against the British taking over the princely state of Kittur (Karnataka) using the Doctrine of Lapse and Adoption. The British took over the kingdom after the death of Kittur Chinnamma's husband and son. Subsequently, Kittur Rani Chinnamma and Rayappa fought bravely against the British. Following the uprising, the agitators declared Kittur an independent state, but the British took over the kingdom.

Faraizi Revolt

The Faraizi Revolts took place in Bengal between 1838 and 1857. The name 'Farazi' means 'duty of Islam'. The Faraizi Revolts were similar to the Mappila Revolts that broke out in Bengal during the time of the Mappila Revolts. The Faraizi Revolt was one of the earliest revolts by the Muslim population of Bengal against the British. The British and the local landowners suppressed the revolt.

Anglo-Sikh Wars (Anglo Sikh War 1 & 2)

Ranjit Singh, son of Maha Singh, the ruler of Gujranwala, unified Punjab. The British were afraid to attack Ranjit Singh, who had a large army. However, after Ranjit Singh's death, the British invaded Punjab and the First Anglo-Sikh War broke out in 1845. The war ended with the Treaty of Lahore in 1846. In 1848, the British again invaded Punjab, leading to the Second Anglo-Sikh War. Although Punjab fought bravely, the British were victorious with the help of spies. In 1849, they annexed the Punjab province to the British Empire.

Kuka Rebellion

The Kuka Rebellion was a peasant revolt in Punjab led by Guru Ram Singh against the British. The Kuka Rebellion is also known as the Kuka Movement. The Kukas or Namdharis were a sect within the Sikh religion. The Kuka Rebellion of the 1840s aimed to eliminate caste and similar discrimination among the Sikhs. Guru Ram Singh, who joined the Sikh army, took responsibility for social reform activities after the death of the previous leader of the Kukas, Balak Singh. The Kuka Rebellion is known as the first major uprising of the people of Punjab against British rule. The Kukas engaged in activities such as boycotting British-made goods and British education. They aimed to overthrow British rule. It was an act of political independence. However, the British who suppressed the rebellion exiled Ram Singh to Burma.

Wahhabi Movement

The 'Wahhabi Movement' was started by some who realized that the British were creating discord among the followers of Islam. However, due to the increasing public support for the Wahhabis, a judge named Norman sentenced the leader of the Wahhabis, Amir Khan, to death on charges of treason. Then, the activists of the Wahhabi movement killed Norman in the court premises. With this, the British exiled the Wahhabis to the Andamans. Later, when the Indian Viceroy Lord Mayo arrived in the Andamans, one of the Wahhabis, Sher Ali, killed him. After the emergence of a moderate named Syed Khan, the hostility between the British and the Wahhabis decreased.

Indigo Revolt

The farmers of Bengal used to earn their livelihood by producing indigo from the indigo plant. But when the British started indigo cultivation in Bengal, the condition of the farmers deteriorated. The landlords cultivated the land for the British. However, the landlords paid meager wages to their dependents. The farmers who demanded fair wages were subjected to torture. The farmers, who were suffering from hunger, attacked the British and destroyed the factories. The press and the locals supported the farmers. The agitation intensified when Grant, the Lieutenant Governor of Bengal, initiated disciplinary measures. In this situation, the government appointed a commission headed by an officer named W.S. Setankar. The commission then ruled that the British should withdraw from forcing the farmers to work. Gradually, the strike began.

Tribal Revolts in India

Not only the native kings, but also many tribal groups in India have fought fiercely against the british. One of their most important struggles was the Santhal Revolt. The Santhal rebellion, an indigenous people of Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha, took place in 1855. The Santhal soldiers who fought bravely were all shot dead by the British army at Murshidabad. The hill people of Bengal, the Chuvarans, the Kurichyas of Kerala, the Munda tribes of Ranchi, the Nayakas of Rajasthan and Gujarat, the Kachanagas of Assam, and the hill tribes of the Rampa region of Andhra Pradesh, all raised rebellions at various times, questioning British rule. All these rebellions were brutally suppressed by the British.

Major tribal revolts

■ Bill Rebellion (1818–31) - Western Ghats

■ Koli Rebellion (1824–28, 1839, 1899) - Gujarat

■ Khasi Rebellion (1846–48, 1885, 1914) - Meghalaya, Assam

■ Naikad Rebellion (1858–59) - Gujarat

■ Rampa Rebellion (1879) - Coastal Andhra Pradesh

■ Kachang Rebellion (1882) - Cachar region, Assam

■ Munda Rebellion (1899–1900) - Chotanagpur region (led by Birsa Munda)

■ Kuki Rebellion (1917–19) - Manipur

Santhal Rebellion

The Santhal Rebellion was one of the struggle in india that frightened the British. The Santhals are the indigenous people of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. They took up arms against the British when they were dissatisfied with their taxes and policies. The Santhals fought to drive out the British under the leadership of Sidho, Kanhu, and Tilkamaji. The rebellion began on June 30, 1855. The Santhals defeated the first English army they encountered and advanced towards Kolkata. Finally, the British army surrounded the Santhals with guns and artillery at Murshidabad. However, they continued to fight until the last Santhal died! Except for the first freedom struggle of 1857, there has never been a rebellion in India in which so many people were massacred.

First War of Indian Independence (1857)

The first war of independence in 1857 is the most important chapter in the history of Indian independence. This rebellion, called the 'Sepoy Mutiny' by the British, started from a small army camp in Barrackpore, Bengal. A rumor spread that the barrels of the guns imported by the British were covered with paper smeared with ox and pig fat. This cover had to be cut and bitten to load the barrels into the guns. This led to great opposition among Muslims and Hindus. The British considered the Indian soldiers, who were called sepoys and worked for low wages, to be like animals. The sepoys protested in the gun incident under the leadership of a young Bengali named Mangal Pandey. Pandey shot down an Englishman. Mangal Pandey was caught by the army and hanged after trial. This incident took place on April 8, 1857.

Inspired by the brave martyrdom of Mangal Pandey, Indian sepoys started riots in many places in North India. Thus, the stage was set for India's first freedom struggle. Mangal Pandey's martyrdom burned like a firebrand in the minds of Indians. It flared up a month later. It started in Meerut. The sepoys did not even want to touch the gun filled with animal fat. The British imprisoned them. Then the other sepoys came together and broke the prison and freed their comrades. They burned the bungalows of the British. They killed all the Englishmen they saw. These events took place on May 9, 1857! Then the sepoys moved towards Delhi. By then, commoners and landlords who were fed up with the rule of the English, and even kings who had lost their thrones, were with them! They used whatever they could find as a weapon.

The freedom fighters who reached Delhi captured the Red Fort. They found the Mughal king Bahadur Shah, who was imprisoned in a dark cell inside the fort. They requested him to take the crown of the Emperor of India. However, Bahadur Shah's reply was that he was weak and could not become the emperor. The Indian freedom fighters did not retreat. They captured the city with the slogan 'Long live the Emperor of India Bahadur Shah Safar'. At the time when the revolutionaries were fighting against the British in Delhi, such riots were taking place all over North India. They were led by Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi, the Crown Prince of Kanpur Nana Sahib, and his general and expert in stealth, Tantia Tope.

Rani Lakshmibai was a brave woman who showed extraordinary courage on the battlefield. At just twenty-one years old, she dressed as a man and fought on the battlefield. When her fort was surrounded by enemy forces, she decided to fight and die for her motherland. The Queen of Jhansi, who rode towards the enemy army on horseback with her sword drawn, killed the enemy soldiers one by one. It was only when she was finally killed that the British realized that she was a woman. The struggle led by Nanasaheb and Tantia Tope began in June. Although the British camp in Kanpur was completely destroyed, Nanasaheb could not resist the British for long. He withdrew from the battlefield without surrendering to the British. He is said to have spent the rest of his life dreaming of freedom in some remote forest in Nepal!

Seeing that the military revolution would fail, Tantia Tope sneaked into the dense forests of the Vindhya Mountains, blinding the British. Finally, Tope was caught after being betrayed by a loyal follower. Like Mangal Pandey, the British hanged him. Thus, the British brought down the brave fighters who led the First War of Independence one by one. However, the revolutionaries in Delhi managed to hold out without surrendering for four months. Finally, the British army, led by a military commander named John Nickel, reached Delhi and chased away the Indian revolutionaries. They killed Bahadur Shah's sons and grandson and exiled Emperor Bahadur Shah to Burma. With that, India's First War of Independence come to an end.

Leaders of First War of Independence (1857)

The Battles of the Rani of Jhansi

The time when the British were conquering the north and south of India. At that time, many of the local kings had surrendered to the British. Rani Lakshmibai, known as the Rani of Jhansi, was a brave woman who fought against the British. When the king of the state of Jhansi passed away, the East India Company demanded that the country be handed over to them. However, Rani Lakshmibai, the widow of the king, fought against the British. The Rani, who dressed as a man and fought bravely with a drawn sword, was finally killed by the British army. Only then did the British realize that she was a woman.

Nana Saheb

Nana Saheb was one of the local kings who fought against the British after the Rani of Jhansi. When Nana saheb, the crown prince of Kanpur, realized that he would lose his kingdom under the law of succession, he decided to fight against the British. Nanasaheb's childhood friend was the Rani of Jhansi. Their struggles also inspired Nanasaheb to confront the British army. He started the fight in June 1857 with his army commander and a skilled stealth fighter, Tantiya Tope. They destroyed the British headquarters in Kanpur. The nana saheb's army, ready for anything, launched an attack on the British like a suicide bomber. After that the British announced a price of one lakh rupees who capture Nanasaheb. But Nanasaheb, who swore not to surrender to the British, escaped to the Himalayan valleys.

Tantia Tope's stealth war

Tantia Tope was a fighter who led a stealth war against the British in North India during the 1857 rebellion in Delhi along with Nanasahib and the Rani of Jhansi. He was Nanasahib's minister. The British made many attempts to capture Tantia Tope. But they could not capture him. Tantia Tope, who hid in the forests of the Vindhya Mountains, later returned to his homeland in disguise. Unable to subdue him directly, the British finally bribed Tope's friend Man Singh. With the help of Man Singh, the British surrounded Tope's hideout and captured him and hanged him. This was in 1859.

Begum Hazrat Mahal and the Lucknow Rebellion

Begum Hazrat Mahal was the ruler of Awadh, which included Lucknow in Uttar Pradesh. She led a valiant fight against the British during the 1857 revolt. Begum declared her son Birjis Qadr as the next Nawab, but the British did not accept it. Fierce fighting took place in Chinhat and Lucknow. The rebels were able to drive the British out of Lucknow. Later, the British authorities, who arrived with a large army, suppressed the Lucknow rebellion.

Bihar Rebellion and Kanwar Singh

Kanwar Singh was a brave man who led the 1857 revolt in Bihar. He was a wealthy landlord in Bihar. At the age of eighty, he fought against the English East India Company, which had taken the property he had inherited from his father. While returning from the fight, Kanwar Singh was attacked and killed by the English army on the Ganges River.

Facts about First War of Indian Independence 1857

■ The Great Revolt of 1857 is often referred to as the "First War of Independence". The revolt broke out in Meerut, Uttar Pradesh, on 10 May 1857.

■ The sudden outbreak of the revolt was due to the Indian soldiers being forced to fire with new types of rifles greased with animal fat.

■ Mangal Pandey was the first martyr of the 1857 revolt.

■ Following the temporary success of the 1857 revolt, the revolutionaries installed Bahadur Shah II as emperor in Delhi.

■ In 1858, the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah II was exiled to Rangoon by the British.

■ The British called the Revolt of 1857 as the Sepoy Rebellion.

■ Sir. Hurros called Rani Lakshmi Bai the "highest and most courageous leader of the revolutionaries".

■ The revolution was completely suppressed in 1858.

■ V. D. Savarkar called the Revolt of 1857 "India's First War of Independence".

1857 Revolt Locations

■ Meerut - Uttar Pradesh

■ Lucknow - Uttar Pradesh

■ Aligarh - Uttar Pradesh

■ Mathura - Uttar Pradesh

■ Agra - Uttar Pradesh

■ Jhansi - Uttar Pradesh

■ Allahabad - Uttar Pradesh

■ Barrackpore - West Bengal

■ Gwalior - Madhya Pradesh

■ Bharatpur - Rajasthan

■ Roorkee - Uttarakhand

■ Ara - Bihar

Location of the riots & Leaders

■ Delhi - Bahadur Shah II, General Bakht Khan

■ Kanpur - Nanasaheb, Tantiatopi

■ Lucknow - Begum Hazrat Mahal, Birjis Qadr

■ Jhansi, Gwalior - Rani Laxmibai

■ Gwalior - Tantiatopi

■ Bihar (Ara) - Kanwar Singh

■ Bareilly, Rohilkhand - Khan Bahadur Khan

■ Faizabad - Maulavi Ahmadullah

■ Agra - Begum Hazrat Mahal

■ Oudh - Begum Hazrat Mahal

■ Jagdishpur - Kanwar Singh

■ Baraut Pargana - Shah Mal

■ Haryana - Rao Tularam

■ Assam - Diwan Maniram

■ Rajasthan (Fort) - Jai Dayal, Hardyal

■ Meerut - Kadam Singh

■ Mathura - Devi Singh

■ Allahabad - Liaquat Ali

■ Mandsaur - Firoz Shah

■ Moradabad - Abdul Ali Khan

Military commanders who suppressed the rebellion

■ Lucknow - Colin Campbell

■ Kanpur - Colin Campbell, Henry Havelock

■ Delhi - John Nicholson, William Hodson

■ Jhansi - Hugh Rose

■ Ara - William Taylor, Vincent Eyre

Results of the 1857 Revolution

■ The East India Company's rule in India ended

■ Britain took over the administration of India directly.

■ The Government of India Act of 1858 was passed

■ The Prohibition of Adoption Act was repealed

■ The annexation of princely states to the British Empire was stopped

■ It was announced that interference in the social and religious affairs of the people of India would cease.

■ It was announced that Indians would be appointed to government jobs according to their educational qualifications.

Modern History of India

Social Reform Movements in India

In the beginning of 19th century, several reform movements emerged under the leadership of renaissance leaders against discrimination in India. In 1828, the followers of Rajaram Mohan Roy formed an organization called the Academic Association. The landlords of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa formed an organization called the Zamindari Association in 1837. The Zamindari Association was founded by Dwarkanath Tagore in Calcutta. This organization later came to be known as the "Landholders' Society". In 1851, an organization called the British Indian Association was formed. Radhakant Deb was its first president and Tagore was its first secretary. The slogan "India for Indians" was first raised by Swami Dayananda Saraswati. In 1866, Dadabhai Naoroji formed an organization called the "East India Association" in London to influence the indian public in Britain. In 1870, Mahadeva Govinda Ranade founded an organization called the Sarvajanik Sabha in Pune with the aim of drawing the government's attention to the economic conditions of the people. Some other reform movements formed in india were the Brahmo Samaj, Tattvabodhini Sabha, Arya Samaj, Theosophical Society, Ramakrishna Mission, and Servants of India Society.

Indian Independence Movement

Political leaders who felt that an all-India organization was needed to stimulate national consciousness among the people founded an organization called the India League in 1875. The India League was replaced by the Indian Association founded by Surendranath Banerjee in 1876. In December 1883, the Indian Association held an All India National Conference in Calcutta. The second National Conference of the Indian Association was convened in December 1885. At this conference, a proposal was made to convene a meeting of the Indian National Congress in Bombay. The Indian National Congress, which led India to independence, was formed in 1885. Congress is the first political party in India and is currently the oldest political party in India. The founding session of the Congress was held from 28 to 31 December 1885 at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College, Bombay. 72 delegates attended. The founder of the Congress was the Britisher Allan Octavian Hume. The first session of the Congress was presided over by W.C. Banerjee; the first president of the Congress was W.C. Banerjee.

Bengal Partition (1905)

Since 1765, Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha had been a single region in British India. Bengal, which was ahead in size and wealth, was divided into two on July 20, 1905, citing administrative convenience. Lord Curzon was behind this. This division was part of the British policy of 'divide and rule'. With the partition, Bengal became two parts, a Muslim-majority region and a Hindu-majority region. The people of Bengal observed October 16, the day of partition, as a day of mourning. They tied rakhi, sang Vande Mataram, and took a dip in the Ganges and took a pledge of brotherhood. Rabindranath Tagore composed the national anthem 'Amar Sonar Bangla' for that day. Years later, this was made the national anthem of Bangladesh in 1972.

Bengali leaders started the Swadeshi movement to express the feelings of the people. The Swadeshi movement was a great success. It started textile mills, soap and match box factories, handloom weaving mills, national banks, insurance companies, etc. Nationalist poetry, prose, journalism, etc. flourished. National education was spread. Nationalists in Bengal and newspapers like Amrit Bazar Patrika, Sanjeevani, Hitavadi, and Vasumathi strongly opposed the partition. As a result of political agitations, Bengal was reunified in 1911. The capital of British India was shifted from Calcutta to New Delhi. Although the partition of Bengal was annulled in 1911, this led to many communal agitations. Finally, Bengal was partitioned again in 1947. This region later became the country of Bangladesh.

Muslim League (1906)

After the partition of Bengal in 1905, East Bengal became a Muslim-majority state. During this time, many Muslim leaders had the idea of ​​forming a political organization. The instructions for this were given by Archbold, who was the principal of Aligarh University at that time. Following this, some leaders, led by the Nawab of Dhaka, Salimullah Mohsin-ul-Mulk, submitted a memorandum to the then Viceroy Lord Minto. This is known as the 'Simla Memorandum'. Lord Minto promised the leaders that he would provide all possible support to the organization that was exclusively for Muslims. Accordingly, the 'Muslim League' was established in Dhaka on 30 December 1906. The strategic political policies of the British helped the growth of this organization.

Swadeshi Movement

The Swadeshi Movement was an important movement that emerged as a protest against the partition of Bengal. The national movement reached the common people with this movement. It was not only foreign-made goods that people boycotted. All the schools, colleges, courts and government offices run by the British were boycotted. Many organizations emerged during this period to promote the Swadeshi movement. The Don Society, Swadesh Dhan Dhav, Anushilan, Suhrid, Sadhana, etc. were important in this. Dadabhai Naoroji, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Aurobindo Ghosh, Bipin Chandrapal, etc. led this movement. The leaders of the movement demanded freedom from foreign rule. The government adopted very strict repressive policies. In exchange for boycotting foreign-made goods, many indigenous manufacturing plants were started in India. Also, educated Indians started many educational institutions. Bengal Technical Institute, Bengal National College, etc. were the schools started during that time.

Surat Split (1907)

The main criticism that the Indian National Congress faced in the beginning was that it was an organization formed to divert the intense unrest of Indian society. Initially, the policy of the Congress was only 'constitutional struggle'. The independence of the country was not the declared goal of the Congress in the early days. All the early leaders of the Congress were moderates. However, by 1905, many people came forward against the 'political begging policies' of the party and a new section called 'extremists' emerged in the Congress. They declared that those who had led the national movement in the early days had failed.

In the 1907 session, the Indian National Congress split into moderates and extremists. The 1907 Congress session was held in Surat, where the moderates had a majority. In this, Rash Bihari Ghosh and the extremist Bal Gangadhar Tilak fought for the post of president, but Rash Bihari Ghosh was elected. The angry extremists boycotted the session and the moderates took over the Congress. This split had a negative impact on the functioning of the Congress. The extremists returned to the Congress in 1916.

Minto Morley Reforms (1909)

A time when anti-British sentiment in India was strong and the jails were filled with protesters. The British took action to avoid problems. The then Viceroy, Lord Minto, and the Secretary of State, Lord Morley, had to face a difficult period. The terrorist activities caused by the partition of Bengal, etc. and the measures taken to suppress them had created a very turbulent atmosphere in India. As a result of the deliberations and discussions conducted by Minto and Morley, who realized that the Indians could be satisfied only by giving them a greater share in the affairs of government, the Parliament passed an Act in A.D. 1909 - the Indian Councils Act 1909.

Provisions

1. The legislatures were enlarged. A system of electing a number of members was introduced. According to this administrative reform, one Indian was appointed to the Viceroy's Executive Council and two Indians were appointed to the Secretary of State Council.

2. Provision was made for an official majority in the Imperial Legislative Council, that is, the central legislative assembly, and an unofficial majority in the provincial assemblies, including elected and nominated members.

3. Separate constituencies were established for Hindus and Muslims.

Ghadar Party (1913)

The Urdu word Ghadar means 'revolution'. A fitting name for the organization of brave men who took up arms for the freedom of their country! This organization was founded in America in 1913. The goal was to mobilize Indians outside India to fight against Britain. The founders of the Ghadar Movement were Dr. Panduranga Sadashiva and Pandit Kashiram. Its headquarters was the 'Yugantar' ashram in San Francisco. When Britain's attention was diverted from India during the First World War, the Ghadar Party decided to launch an armed rebellion in India and make India independent.

The main leaders were Lala Hardayal, Bhai Paramanand, Sohan Singh Bhakna and Ram Chandra. They decided on February 21, 1915, as the Revolution Day. Before that, Rash Behari Bose, Vishnu Ganesh Pingle, Sachin Sanyal and others came to Punjab and camped there. But, in the meantime, the British got the secret of revolution through spies. Before the revolutionaries had time to do anything, the British army captured all the leaders. Many were killed. Many were exiled. Thus, the move of the patriots failed. This move was betrayed by a member of the revolutionary army.

Revolutionary Movement in India

Revolutionary movements were aggressive movements that grew parallel to the national movements. There were many brave revolutionaries who fought and sacrificed their lives to drive out the British through armed struggle. Let us get to know some of the important revolutionary movements among them.

The British dealt with the Swadeshi movement brutally, and there were nationwide protests against the British's actions, which included beating and imprisoning leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Surendranath Banerjee. The revolutionaries decided to violently oust the rule that was violating the law and destroying civil rights. They were inspired by revolutionary ideas from abroad. Newspapers like Aurobindo Ghosh's Vande Mataram also supported these movements. In 1897, Damodar Hari Chapekar and Balkrishna Hari Chapekar, known as the Chapekar brothers, entered the revolutionary movement by killing the british officials Rand and Amherst in Pune. Let's get to know other important revolutionary movements.

Mitra Melan - This was an organization started in Maharashtra in 1899 by Veer damodar Savarkar, his brother Ganesh Savarkar and some friends. They assassinated Jackson, the District Magistrate of Nashik.

Anushilan Samiti - This organization was founded in Bengal in 1902. Its main leaders were Barindra Kumar Ghosh, Jatindranath Banerjee and Pramod Mittal. Anushilan Samiti had a unit in Dhaka. Pulin Bihari Das was the main leader in Dhaka.

Yugantar Party - This organization, founded by Hem Chandradas, also had a newspaper named 'Yugantar'. Bhupendranath Datta was the founder of the newspaper. The members of this organization were accused in the Alipore Conspiracy Case.

Bharat Mata Association - Chidambaram Pillai's main supporters were Vanchinathan Iyer, Subramania Siva and Neelakanta Brahmachari. The Bharat Mata Association was a revolutionary movement started by Neelakanta Brahmachari and Vanchinathan Iyer. Vanchinathan Iyer shot and killed Tirunelveli British Collector in a train, who had sentenced the righteous Chidambaram Pillai. He committed suicide with the same gun without being caught by the police.

Bharat Mata Society - The leaders of this organization, which was established in Punjab, were J.M. Chatterjee, Lala Hardyal, Ajit Singh and Suni Amba Prasad.

Suhrid Samiti - This was a revolutionary party that worked in the area of ​​Mymensingh in Bengal.

Other important organizations - Swadesh Bandhav Samiti of Barisali, Bradi Samiti of Faridpur, Paris Group, Indian Independence League, Punjab Naujawan Bharat Sabha formed on the initiative of Bhagat Singh, and many other organizations led revolutionary activities from within and outside India during this period. Along with innumerable revolutionaries like Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki, some of the individuals who should be remembered are Shyamji Krishna Varma, Madanlal Dhingra, S. R. Rane, V.V.S. Iyer, Tarakanath and others. Most of these revolutionary movements grew in Bengal and Maharashtra. Many people, known and unknown, have given their lives for these movements.

Home Rule Movement (1916)

The Indian Home Rule Movement was formed in 1916 by the princely states demanding autonomy from British rule. Tilak formed the Home Rule League at the Bombay Provincial Conference held in Belgaum in April 1916. Annie Besant started the Home Rule Movement in September 1916 with its headquarters in Adyar, Madras. Both the leagues had their own areas of activity. Tilak and Annie Besant traveled all over India to spread the demand for Home Rule. Tilak had started an English publication called “Maratha” and a Marathi newspaper called “Kesari” to promote the Home Rule Movement. Annie Besant also published the newspapers “New India” and “Common Wheel”. With the publication of the Montagu-Chelmsford Plan of Administrative Reforms in July 1918, the Home Rule movement began to lose its relevance. In 1926, Mahatma Gandhi was elected as the All-India President of the Home Rule League. Within the next year, the Home Rule Movement officially merged with the Indian National Congress.

Lucknow Pact (1916)

In the First World War, Britain attacked the Muslim country of Turkey. With this, the Muslim League, which had been loyal to Britain, turned against Britain. They decided to join hands with the Congress. The Congress session held in Lucknow in 1916 was very important. At this conference, the extremists and the moderates decided to work together. The agreement that came into effect at that time was the Lucknow Pact. It is also known as the “Congress-League Plan”. The main proposals put forward as part of the plan of the Lucknow Pact were,

1. Give self-government to India.

2. Give Indians a majority in the council members. Also give them powers.

3. Ensure Muslim representation in the council.

4. Form separate constituencies, give them priority, and give the members the power to accept or reject laws or decisions.

The Lucknow Pact was submitted to the government in November 1916.

Champaran Satyagraha (1917)

Gandhi's first experiment in India with Satyagraha took place in Champaran, Bihar. The indigo farmers of Champaran were exploited and oppressed by European plantation owners. The farmers were forced to grow indigo in place of other crops on their land. They were also forced to pay the price fixed by the indigo plantation owners. In 1917, Gandhiji reached Champaran and made a detailed inquiry into the condition of the farmers. Although the authorities ordered him to leave the district, he did not give in. He continued his investigation in defiance of government orders. Gandhiji worked to ensure that the farmers got security of tenure and freedom to grow the crops of their choice. Then, Gandhiji, who had investigated the grievances of the farmers, was arrested and put on trial in court. Finally, the government appointed a commission of inquiry. The commission accepted most of the demands of the farmers. Thus, Gandhiji was able to succeed in India's first experiment in Satyagraha.

Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918)

In 1918, Gandhiji led two strikes in his native Gujarat. One in Ahmedabad and the other in Kheda. In Ahmedabad, Gandhiji intervened in a wage dispute between the mill owners and workers. The mill workers in Ahmedabad went on strike in 1918, demanding a wage increase. Gandhiji took up the issue. He began a hunger strike until death, demanding a wage increase for the workers and improvement in their working conditions. Finally, the mill owners agreed to a compromise. They agreed to a 35 percent increase in the wages of the workers.

Kheda Satyagraha (1918)

Gandhiji fought for the farmers in Kheda. The farmers of Kheda had suffered massive crop failure due to drought. Following this, the farmers demanded a reduction in land tax, but the government refused to grant it. Gandhiji intervened in this issue. He asked the farmers to refuse to pay taxes until the land tax was reduced. Finally, the government accepted the farmers' demand. Gandhiji withdrew from the Satyagraha.

Note: The Satyagraha movements in Champaran, Kheda and Ahmedabad were the preludes to Gandhiji's entry into the Indian national movement. These movements helped him to understand the problems of the people. All these movements helped him to get close to the masses. His sympathy for the poor won him a great place in the hearts of the people.

Montagu Chelmsford Reforms (1919)

Edwin Montagu was a man who came as the Indian Secretary with the declaration that 'India should not be oppressed anymore. They should be given self-government'. With the help of the Indian Viceroy Chelmsford, he prepared a reform document. Everyone had high hopes for this. But most of it was a proposal that would cause difficulties for the Indians. Reforms that retained sovereignty for the English did not help to bring about any change.

Rowlatt Act (1919)

During the First World War (1914-18), the British government imposed censorship on the press to crush the national movement. It also introduced a law to imprison national activists without trial. In 1919, the government passed the Rowlatt Acts to suppress public opposition. These laws were passed on the recommendation of a committee headed by Justice Sidney Rowlatt. The Rowlatt Acts gave the government the power to arrest and imprison any person without trial. This law was a weapon for the British authorities to effectively deal with the protests related to the freedom struggle. Censorship on the press continued.

The Rowlatt Acts were a blow to Gandhiji. These black laws broke his faith in the justice of the British. They also brought him into the national movement. Gandhiji launched a strong movement against the Rowlatt Acts. Within a short time, it spread throughout the country. Gandhiji called for a nationwide movement and hartal against the Rowlatt Acts. Under Gandhiji's leadership, shops and schools were closed all over India on April 6th, and people protested. Strikes and demonstrations were widely organized. Public life came to a standstill. It was the Rowlatt Acts that made Gandhiji a true national leader. The British government repealed the Rowlatt Acts in 1922.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919)

The protests against the Rowlatt Acts were most intense in Punjab. Many people from Punjab had fought for the British in World War I. Naturally, the people of Punjab reacted strongly against these black laws. The government decided to suppress the popular uprising by arresting national leaders. Gandhiji, who had set out for Punjab, was arrested on the way and put in a prison. Many local Congress leaders were also arrested. It was during the protests against the Rowlatt Acts that the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, one of the most heinous political massacres in history, took place.

On April 13, 1919, a large crowd gathered at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar. They had gathered to protest the arrest of national leaders Dr. Kitchlew and Dr. Satyapal. The meeting was peaceful. While the protest was going on, General Dyer, the army chief in Amritsar, came with his troops and fired on the unarmed crowd. More than four hundred people were killed in this massacre. Hundreds of others were injured.

The Jallianwala Bagh tragedy shook Gandhiji. He also lost whatever faith he had in the British. He declared that 'any cooperation with this demonic government is sinful'. The Amritsar tragedy was one of the main reasons that motivated Gandhiji to start the Non-Cooperation Movement.

The government appointed the Hunter Commission to investigate the Jallianwala Bagh incident. Although Dyer was found guilty, the commission did not recommend any punishment against Dyer. Later, Dyer, the main mastermind of the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, was shot dead by Udham Singh.

Khilafat Movement (1919)

Another event that prompted Gandhiji to start the Non-Cooperation Movement was the Khilafat Movement. A large section of Muslims viewed the Sultan of Turkey as their spiritual leader or 'Caliph'. After the First World War, the Turkish Empire was divided and the Sultan lost a large part of his power. The disintegration of Turkey and the decline in the status of the Sultan hurt the Muslims. In 1919, Muslims in India started the Khilafat Movement to regain the lost powers of the Sultan of Turkey.

The Khilafat Movement (1919–1920) was a movement of Indian Muslims. On 21 September 1919, the first All-India Khilafat Conference was held in Lucknow. Its main leaders were Muhammad Ali, Shaukat Ali (Ali brothers) and Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad. The main demands put forward by the Khilafat movement were as follows.

The control of the holy places of the Muslims of the former Ottoman Empire should be given to the Turkish Sultan or Caliph. Arabia, Syria, Iraq and Palestine should be kept under the sovereignty of the Muslims. The Caliph should be given as much territory as is necessary to protect the Islamic faith. The All India Khilafat Conference decided to observe 17th October 1919 as All India Khilafat Day. The Khilafat movement had created a great stir in Kerala.

Note: Gandhiji supported the Khilafat movement. He was elected as the President of the All India Khilafat Committee. He saw the Khilafat movement as a golden opportunity to strengthen Hindu-Muslim unity. He hoped that by linking the Non-Cooperation Movement with the Khilafat, the two religious communities of India, Hindus and Muslims, could come together and end colonial rule. In 1920, Gandhiji formally announced a non-cooperation program in support of the Khilafat movement.

Non-Cooperation Movement (1920)

The Non-Cooperation Movement was Gandhiji's first major struggle against British rule. 'Non-cooperation' was an element of Gandhiji's concept of Satyagraha. Initially, he adopted a stance of cooperating with the British. He had a firm belief in the justice of the British. When the First World War broke out, he expressed his loyalty to the British by appealing to the people to join the army. But some events in 1919 - the Rowlatt Acts, the Jallianwala Bagh tragedy, and the Khilafat Movement - changed Gandhiji's attitude towards the British. These events motivated Gandhiji to become a fighter and to non-cooperate with the British. It was these same events that motivated him to start the Non-Cooperation Movement.

The Non-Cooperation Movement had three objectives - to find a solution to the Punjab problem, to resolve the Khilafat problem, and to achieve Swaraj. The Non-Cooperation Movement was a political program based on non-violence. It had both positive and negative programs. The positive programs of the Non-Cooperation Movement were - Swadeshi propaganda, anti-unionism, fostering Hindu-Muslim friendship, prohibition of liquor, nationalization of education, and promotion of charkha and khadi. The negative programs of the Non-Cooperation Movement were generally of a radical nature. Boycott was its hallmark. They were - boycotting government educational institutions, courts, legislatures, official ceremonies, foreign clothes and other products. Also, giving up government jobs, seals, titles, and honors, refusing to pay taxes, etc. During the Non-Cooperation Movement, which began in 1920 and lasted until 1922, the British government arrested and imprisoned thousands of Indians. In March 1922, Gandhiji was also arrested on charges of sedition. After a historic trial, he was sentenced to six years in prison.

Chauri Chaura Incident (1922)

The Chauri Chaura incident took place at a time when the Non-Cooperation Movement was on the verge of victory. In February 1922, a group of Satyagrahis were picketing a liquor shop as part of the Non-Cooperation Movement in Chauri Chaura, Uttar Pradesh. Three people were killed in the ensuing police firing. The policemen who rushed to the station were surrounded by a mob. People were shouting that they should apologize for shooting innocent people. Not only did they not apologize, but the policemen allegedly provoked the Satyagrahis. Saying "kill instead of kill", the people set fire to the police station and more than twenty policemen were killed. Many of those caught for this were hanged and the rest were exiled. Gandhiji was very saddened by the actions of the mob. With that, the Congress stopped the Non-Cooperation Movement. There was discontent within the Congress itself over Gandhi's abrupt end to the Non-Cooperation Movement. Subhash Chandra Bose called it a national disaster.

Simon Commission Boycott (1927)

The Simon Commission was a seven-member commission appointed by the British government in November 1927 to investigate and report on the functioning of the administrative system implemented under the Montagu-Chelmsford Act of 1919. John Simon was its chairman. Clement Attlee, who later became the British Prime Minister, was one of the members. There was no Indian representation in the commission. The exclusion of Indians from the commission angered national leaders. Political parties such as the Congress, the Muslim League, and the Hindu Mahasabha boycotted the Simon Commission. Demonstrations were held all over India against the Simon Commission.

On the day the Simon Commission arrived in India, on 3 February 1928, an all-India hartal was declared with the slogan 'Simon Go Back'. The government suppressed the popular movement vigorously. The police brutally beat the protesters. Lala Lajpat Rai was seriously injured in the brutal lathicharge and later died. Despite the popular protests, the Simon Commission continued its work and submitted its report in 1930. Bhagat Singh and his associates later killed the police officer Saunders, who led the lathicharge.

Bardoli Satyagraha (1928)

The Bardoli Satyagraha was a peasant movement led by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel in Bardoli taluk, Gujarat, in 1928. It was a civil disobedience movement by the farmers of Bardoli against the British government against the increase in land tax. This movement was against the government's decision to increase land tax by thirty percent. It started as a tax refusal movement. Finally, the government agreed to negotiate. The tax increase was reduced by six percent and the confiscated agricultural land was returned to the farmers. Thus, the Bardoli Satyagraha was a great success. This movement had the blessings of Gandhi. The success of the Bardoli Satyagraha inspired Gandhiji to start a national civil disobedience movement against the British government.

Hindustan Socialist Republican Association

The HSRI is a revolutionary organization formed in 1928. In 1928, a group of young men inspired by socialist ideas reorganized the Hindustan Republican Association and formed the HSRA. It was led by Chandrashekhar Azad, Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, B.K. Simha, Shiva Varma and Jayadeva Kumar. The main objective was to establish an Indian republic through organized armed struggle. The organization remained active until 1931. On 17 December 1928, Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Chandrashekhar Azad killed Saunders, a police officer involved in the Lahore Lathicharge. Chandrashekhar Azad then died a heroic death in a single encounter with the police at Alfred Park in Allahabad. Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru were hanged on 31 March 1931.

Nehru Report (1928)

The Congress session held in Calcutta in 1928 requested the government to grant Dominion status to India. The All-Party Conference held in Delhi under the leadership of Motilal Nehru appointed a sub-committee to prepare a draft constitution. Motilal Nehru was the chairman of this committee and Jawaharlal Nehru was the secretary. The constitution prepared by this committee later became known as the Nehru Report. It envisaged a self-governing Dominion status for India. Nehru submitted the report on 10 August 1928. The report could not be passed at the All-Party Conference held in Calcutta in December 1928 due to the obstacles raised by the communal leaders of the Hindu Mahasabha, the Muslim League and the Sikh League.

Lahore Session (1929)

In December 1929, the annual session of the Congress was held in Lahore. The Lahore session of the Congress was historic. The reasons for its importance are as follows. Jawaharlal Nehru was elected as the President of the Congress. It was a sign of transferring the leadership of the Congress to the younger generation. The Lahore session passed a historic resolution declaring that the ultimate goal of the Congress was 'Purna Swaraj' or complete independence. The Lahore session decided to celebrate January 26, 1930, as Independence Day throughout the country. The Lahore session also decided to start a civil disobedience movement under the leadership of Gandhiji.

Gandhiji put forward some suggestions for celebrating Independence Day.

1. He suggested that the declaration of independence should be made in all villages and all cities together. He also requested that meetings be held at all places at the same time.

2. The time of the meetings should be announced in the traditional manner by blowing drums.

3. The Independence Day celebrations should continue with the hoisting of the national flag.

4. The rest of the day should be spent on constructive activities like spinning, serving the untouchables, Hindu-Muslim unity, and the prohibition movement. Gandhiji declared that freedom was an inalienable right of the Indian people, and that if any government tried to take it away or suppress it, the people had the right to change or abolish that government.

On January 26, 1930, Independence Day was celebrated across the country by hoisting the tricolor flag and singing patriotic songs.

Poorna Swaraj Resolution (1929)

The Lahore session declared that the aim of the Congress was to achieve Poorna Swaraj. The Poorna Swaraj Resolution was passed at the historic Lahore session in December 1929. It was presided over by Jawaharlal Nehru. The session also decided to celebrate 26 January 1930 as India's Independence Day. Jawaharlal Nehru hoisted the Indian tricolour for the first time on the banks of the Rabi River. It was also decided that on 26 January, the tricolour should be hoisted throughout the country and that 'any further submission to foreign rule is a crime against God and man'. It was in memory of this day that 26 January was later celebrated as the Republic Day of independent India.

Civil Disobedience Movement (1930)

The Civil Disobedience Movement was the second major movement led by Gandhiji against British rule. Gandhiji launched the Civil Disobedience Movement by violating the Salt Act. Gandhiji had prepared a detailed programme for the movement before starting it. Immediately after the Independence Day celebrations, he presented his “Eleven Demands” to the British government, warning that if these demands were not accepted, the Congress would launch a civil disobedience movement against the government. But the Viceroy did not accept any of these demands. In February 1930, the Congress Working Committee met at Sabarmati and authorized Gandhiji to launch a civil disobedience movement. Gandhiji adopted a new weapon to fight against the government. He announced that he would launch a civil disobedience movement by violating the Salt Act. The Salt Act was one of the most hated laws in British India. Gandhiji's decision to launch a civil disobedience movement with the salt tax as the central issue was a strategic move. Gandhiji calculated that through this, he could divert public anger against the British. Thus, the Salt Act became a major issue in the Indian freedom struggle.

The civil disobedience movement spread rapidly across the country. Gandhiji's call for civil disobedience inspired all sections of Indian society to express their anger against the colonial rule. Women, farmers, workers, students, lawyers and other sections of the population enthusiastically joined this movement. Lawlessness, tax refusal, picketing of liquor shops, hartals, and strikes shook the country. Boycott of government institutions became an integral part of this movement. Apart from the official programs led by Gandhiji and the Congress, other forms of protest also emerged during the agitation. In many parts of the country, farmers violated the British forest laws. These laws denied farmers and their cattle access to the forests. They also refused to pay land tax and rent. Workers in the cities went on strike. Lawyers boycotted British courts. Students refused to attend government-run educational institutions. The most important feature of the Civil Disobedience Movement was the large-scale participation of women. They participated in marches along with men.

The British tried to suppress the Civil Disobedience Movement. The Congress was banned. Many leaders, including Gandhiji, were arrested. Within a month, more than 60,000 Indians were arrested and imprisoned. In March 1931, the Civil Disobedience Movement was temporarily suspended following the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. After the failure of the Second Round Table Conference, Gandhiji resumed the Civil Disobedience Movement. Then the then Viceroy, Lord Wellington, took strict measures to suppress it. Gandhiji was arrested and the Congress was banned. This made it difficult for the Congress to continue the agitation. In April 1934, the Congress finally withdrew the Civil Disobedience Movement.

Salt Satyagraha (1930)

The Salt Act was one of the most hated laws in British India. Under this act, the government had the monopoly on the production and sale of salt. Salt was an essential part of the people's diet. Therefore, it was indispensable for every Indian family. But the British did not allow them to produce salt even for their own needs. Therefore, they were forced to buy salt from shops at high prices. Moreover, the government doubled the salt tax. Naturally, public anger flared up against the government's monopoly on salt production. Thus, the Salt Act became a major issue in the Indian freedom struggle. Realizing that salt tax was more discriminatory than other taxes, Gandhiji decided to launch the Salt Satyagraha.

The British failed to realize the importance of the challenge Gandhiji had raised. Although Gandhiji had given prior notice of his Dandi March to the Viceroy, Lord Irwin, he ignored it. On March 12, 1930, Gandhiji began his famous Dandi March. Along with 78 selected followers, he marched from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi, a distance of about 200 miles. After a 24-day march, he reached Dandi, a coastal village in Gujarat. On April 6, 1930, Gandhiji and his followers broke the Salt Law and made salt on the Dandi beach. Thus, he became a criminal in the eyes of the law. Meanwhile, people in many parts of the country violated the salt law. The British government, alarmed by the increasing popularity of the Dandi March, imprisoned Gandhiji and Jawaharlal Nehru.

Lahore Conspiracy Case Trial (1930)

The Lahore Conspiracy Case is related to the struggle against British imperialism led by Bhagat Singh and B.K. Dutt, members of the HSRA. It is also known as the Lahore Trial. The Central Legislative Assembly passed a Public Safety Bill restricting civil liberties. In protest against this, Bhagat Singh and B.K. Dutt threw a bomb into the Central Legislative Assembly on April 8, 1929. It was not intended to kill anyone. Their aim was to make the deaf hear. Bhagat Singh and Dutt did not make any attempt to escape. Their aim was to use the court as a propaganda tool when they were arrested and tried in court. They also saw it as an opportunity to spread the ideology and program of the HSRA among the people. Thus, the Lahore Conspiracy Trial was held. The court sentenced both of them to death. They were hanged on 23 March 1931.

First Round Table Conference (1930)

After the Labour Party came to power in Britain, it was announced that a new constitution would be prepared for India. It was decided to hold a Round Table Conference in London to hear the opinions of various political parties in India. The Dandi March was an eye-opener for the British. Britain realized the need to give Indians more representation in the government. With this aim, the British government convened Round Table Conferences in London. The British convened the First Round Table Conference when the Civil Disobedience Movement was in full swing.

The first Round Table Conference, which began in London on November 12, 1930, was presided over by the then British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald. 16 representatives from British politics, 58 political leaders from British India, and 16 representatives from the princely states participated. The prominent participants were Aga Khan, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Maulana Muhammad Ali, Tej Bahadur Sapru, B.R. Ambedkar, etc. Representatives of the Muslim League and the Depressed Classes participated. This conference was boycotted by all the prominent political leaders of India. The Congress also boycotted this conference.

Gandhi - Irwin Pact (1931)

It became clear to the British that the discussion of constitutional reforms without the participation of the Congress was meaningless. Therefore, the British government tried to reach a compromise with the Congress. In January 1931, Gandhiji was released from prison. The Viceroy, Lord Irwin, invited him for meeting. After many consultations, Gandhiji and Lord Irwin signed a pact on 5 March 1931. This is known as the Gandhi-Irwin Pact or the Delhi Pact.

As per the terms of the pact, Gandhiji agreed to stop the civil disobedience movement. He also agreed to participate in the Second Round Table Conference. The government agreed to release all prisoners except those who had been involved in violent acts during the civil disobedience period. Indians were allowed to make salt in the coastal areas. The Gandhi-Irwin Pact was strongly criticized by the nationalists because the government did not accept any of the demands put forward by the civil disobedience movement. Gandhiji did not receive any assurance from the Viceroy that political freedom would be granted to Indians. Gandhiji received only an assurance that all such goals could be discussed. The government did not even accept the demand for commutation of the death sentence of Bhagat Singh and his comrades (Sukhdev and Rajaguru) to life imprisonment.

Second Round Table Conference (1931)

The British government convened the Second Round Table Conference in London in September 1931. Following the Gandhi-Irwin Pact, the Indian National Congress attended the second session held in London. Gandhiji attended this conference as the sole representative of the Congress. The Congress reiterated that its goal was complete independence. However, Gandhiji's claim that the Congress represented the whole of India was challenged by three groups - Muslim League, the princes and Ambedkar. The Muslim League claimed that they stood for the interests of the Muslim minority. The princes also claimed that the Congress had no support in their areas. The prominent jurist and thinker B.R. Ambedkar argued that the Congress did not represent the lower castes.

The conference was prolonged until December due to endless discussions on communal issues, but the discussions failed. There was no discussion at the conference on granting independence or dominion status to India. The conference also failed to reach a consensus on the issue of 'communal representation'. Following this, Gandhi returned to India without any positive results and resumed civil disobedience. To suppress it, the then Viceroy Wellington arrested Gandhiji and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and banned the Congress. The strike was officially called off on 7 April 1934.

Communal Award (1932)

After 1932, Gandhiji intensified his work for the expulsion of untouchables. In August 1932, the British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald announced the Communal Award. The Communal Award was to provide separate reserved constituencies for Muslims, Sikhs, Christians and the Depressed Classes. Gandhiji opposed the treatment of the Depressed Classes as a separate class.

On 20 September 1932, Gandhiji began a hunger strike in Yerwada Jail to withdraw the Communal Award. Gandhiji demanded that the Depressed Classes should contest and win from the general Hindu constituencies. Gandhiji believed that only then would their social progress be effective. Subsequently, negotiations were held under the leadership of B.R. Ambedkar to change the provisions of the Communal Award. As part of this, the Pune Pact become success.

The British government accepted the Pune Pact and Gandhiji ended his hunger strike. According to this, the special reserved constituencies for the Depressed Classes were abolished and their reserved seats in the general Hindu constituencies were doubled. He then undertook an all-India journey for the expulsion of the Untouchables. Gandhiji started a newspaper called 'Harijan' for the progress of those suffering from untouchability. Gandhiji formed an organization called Harijan Sevak Sangh for the upliftment of the Harijans.

Poona Pact (1932)

Gandhiji started a hunger strike in Yerwada Jail to withdraw the communal award. As part of this, the Poona Pact become success. The British government accepted the Poona Pact and Gandhiji ended his hunger strike.

Main provisions of the Poona Pact

■ General constituencies will continue

■ 148 seats will be reserved for the backward classes instead of 71.

■ 20% reservation of seats for Harijans in the Central Legislative Assembly.

■ Depressed members to be elected by unanimity.

■ Adequate representation of Harijans in public services and local bodies.

■ Special financial assistance for literacy work of Harijans.

Third Round Table Conference (1932)

The Third Round Table Conference, which began in London on 17 November 1932, was attended by only 46 delegates who had pledged allegiance to the government. Muhammad Ali, Jinnah, Aga Khan and B.R. Ambedkar were present. Congress representatives did not attend this conference. This conference formulated some general principles for the future Indian Constitution. The Government of India Act of 1935 was passed on the basis of the White Paper issued at the end of the Third Round Table Conference. The India Act of 1935 marked the beginning of representative government in India.

At this conference, Muslim delegates demanded the establishment of a 'Muslim State' in the northwestern part of India, an idea of ​​Rahmat Ali, a Muslim student at Cambridge. Rahmat Ali had suggested the name Pakistan for this state. He formed this name by combining the first letters of the place names of Punjab, Afghanistan, Kashmir, Sindh, and the last three letters of Balochistan. This word means 'holy land' in Urdu.

An Indian who participated in all three Round Table Conferences was B.R. Ambedkar. He participated as a representative of the Depressed Class.

Congress Socialist Party

Inspired by the Russian Revolution, socialist ideas began to spread in India by the 1930s. The Congress Socialist Party was formed in 1934 by socialist sympathizers of the Indian National Congress. It was known as the CSP. In May 1934, the All India Congress Socialist Conference was held in Patna under the leadership of Jayaprakash Narayan. Acharya Narendra Dev was the president. The first All India Conference of the Congress Socialist Party was held in Mumbai in October 1934. Sampurnananda was the president.

Government of India Act 1935 (1935)

The India Act of 1935 introduced representative government in India. It brought about fundamental changes in the provinces. It ended the dual system of government that existed in the provinces and brought about local self-government. Under this act,

■ It provided for the establishment of a federal model of government at the Centre.

■ It provided for complete autonomy for the states.

■ It provided for dual governance at the centre.

■ It provided for a bicameral legislature in the provinces.

■ It provided for the establishment of the Reserve Bank of India, the Public Service Commission and the Federal Court.

■ Burma was separated from India under this act.

This act granted limited voting rights. Elections were held in the provinces in 1937. The Congress achieved a resounding victory. The Congress was able to form ministries in eight of the eleven provinces. However, the Congress Prime Ministers had to work under the control and supervision of the British Governor.

In September 1939, World War II broke out. Gandhiji and Nehru had opposed Hitler and Nazism from the very beginning. They strongly condemned fascist atrocities. Naturally, they wanted to help Britain in the war against the fascist powers. They promised that the Congress would support Britain's war efforts if it promised to give India independence after the war. The government rejected this offer, and in protest, the Congress ministries in the provinces resigned in October 1939.

August Offer (1940)

In 1939, World War II began. In 1940, the situation of the Allies in World War II was critical. Germany invaded and conquered many European countries. Britain was under German attack. On this occasion, Congress declared that they were against fascism and Nazism. Then, the statement issued by the British Viceroy Linlithgow to gain Indian support is known as the August Offer. It had three main conditions. The Viceroy's Executive Council would be expanded to include Indian representatives, a War Advisory Council would be formed including British and Indians, and efforts would be made to formulate a constitution in the future. The main condition of this was that India would be given the status of a 'princely state' after the war. However, the Congress and the Muslim League rejected this. These promises are known as the 'August Offer'.

Individual Satyagraha (1940)

After realizing that Britain would not change its policy towards India, Gandhiji decided to start Individual Satyagraha. Congress was not interested in disrupting Britain's war preparations. That is why the movement was limited to Individual Satyagraha. On 17 October 1940, Acharya Vinoba Bhave started Individual Satyagraha. Between November 1940 and February 1941, many Congress leaders participated in the Satyagraha and were arrested.

Indian National Army - INA (1942)

There were many revolutionaries working abroad for India's independence. Rash Bihari Bose was the most important of them. In March 1942, Bose formed the Indian Independence League in Tokyo. In June 1942, Rash Behari Bose and Mohan Singh formed the Indian National Army at a conference in Bangkok. In July 1943, Subhash Chandra Bose took over the leadership of the INA. The first three brigades of the INA were named Gandhi, Azad and Nehru respectively. On 21 October 1943, the Provisional Government of Independent India was formed in Singapore under the leadership of Bose. Netaji was sworn in as the head of state. In 1944, Azad Hind National Bank was formed with the help of Japan. Netaji had previously minted currency notes for the independent government.

The aim of the INA was to capture India and liberate India from Britain with the help of Japan. On March 18, 1944, the INA crossed the border and entered India. They raised the tricolor flag on Indian soil. But as the tide of the war changed, the INA could not hold on. With the advance of Britain, the German army was crushed. The Japanese army suffered setbacks. The INA made a significant contribution to India's freedom struggle. INA proved that Indian women were also capable of fighting against the British

Cripps Mission (1942)

In 1942, Britain had a coalition government. Winston Churchill, the leader of the Conservative Party, was the Prime Minister. Churchill was a staunch imperialist. He was committed to preserving the British Empire in India at all costs. Therefore, he had no interest in granting India independence. However, the Labour members of the coalition government were sympathetic to India. They urged Churchill to negotiate with the Indians and find a solution to their problem. Meanwhile, Japan's entry into the war posed a great threat to the British. Japan had captured many countries in South-East Asia. With this, the war came to India's doorstep. In this situation, the British sincerely wanted to gain the support and cooperation of the Indians for the war effort.

In 1942, Churchill sent a mission to India, led by his cabinet member Stafford Cripps, to reach a compromise with Gandhiji and the Congress. But the negotiations between Cripps and the Congress failed. The Congress rejected Cripps's offer to grant India dominion status after the war. Gandhiji described this offer as 'A post-dated cheque on a crashing bank'. The Congress offered to cooperate with the British if an Indian was appointed as a member of the Viceroy's Executive Council for Defence, but this was not accepted. Thus, the Cripps mission failed.

Quit India Movement (1942)

After the failure of the Cripps mission, Gandhiji decided to launch his third movement against British rule. This movement is known as the "Quit India Movement". The Quit India Movement began in August 1942. The failure of the Cripps mission was the immediate cause of the genesis of this movement. Gandhiji demanded that the British leave India in an orderly and timely manner. The Congress accepted this idea. On 8 August 1942, the Congress session held in Bombay passed a resolution demanding that the British leave India immediately. The resolution stated that a mass movement would be launched under the leadership of Gandhiji to persuade the British to leave India by handing over power to the Indians. This resolution came to be known as the "Quit India Resolution". Gandhiji called on everyone to join the movement with the slogan "Do or Die".

But before the movement could begin, the government intervened. The next morning (9 August) all the top leaders, including Gandhiji, were arrested. Hearing about the Quit India Resolution and the arrest of the people's leaders, the people started the movement. The youth jumped into the movement. Protests and strikes broke out in all parts of the country. India became a land of riots. The people also engaged in destructive activities. They attacked and destroyed the symbols of British rule, such as police stations, post offices, railway tracks, bridges, etc. Strikes, hartals and demonstrations shook the country. Socialist leaders like Jayaprakash Narayan organized underground battles against the British. British rule collapsed in many places. Parallel "independent governments" were established in districts like Satara and Medinipur. The Quit India Movement had no recognized leadership or program. The angry people fought in their own way.

The government used all means to suppress the Quit India Movement, including lathicharge, firing, arrests, beatings, imprisonment, and torture. The government was able to suppress the movement only after a year of hard work. The Quit India Movement was a popular movement. Thousands of ordinary people joined the movement. It inspired young people to boycott colleges and go to jail. The Quit India Movement demonstrated the depth of national consciousness and the people's ability to struggle and make sacrifices. This movement convinced the British that the days of British rule in India were numbered. This prompted them to hold talks on the transfer of power. This movement caused the attention of the outside world to turn to the Indian question.

Wavell Plan & Simla Conference (1945)

The British government appointed Lord Wavell, the Governor-General, to hand over power to the Indians by electing an interim government. Following this, Lord Wavell announced the Wavell Plan on 14 June 1945. The Simla Conference was convened to discuss the Wavell Plan. The Simla Conference was held between 25 June and 14 July 1945. A 21-member delegation, consisting of representatives of the Congress, League, Sikhs, Depressed Classes, and European groups, participated in the Simla Conference under the chairmanship of Lord Wavell. On 14 July, the Viceroy declared the Wavell Plan a failure and closed it.

Key proposals of the Wavell Plan

◆ An interim government would be elected.

◆ Hindu and Muslim representation would be equal in the elected interim government.

◆ The interim government would be given autonomy over all departments except defense.

◆ The power to intervene in the departments would be limited to the Governor General and the Commander-in-Chief.

◆ The Governor General would have the power to veto the decisions of the elected government.

Reasons for the failure of the Wavell Plan

◆ Lord Wavell rejected Jinnah's demand that no Muslim who was not a member of the Muslim League should be given membership in the Viceroy's Council.

◆ The Simla Conference collapsed when the Congress and the Muslim League abstained from the meeting called to elect the members of the Council.

Royal Indian Navy Mutiny (1946)

Another legendary event in the history of the Indian freedom struggle was the mutiny in the Royal Indian Navy. The main reason was the opposition to the discriminatory behavior of the British commanders in the Navy. The naval mutiny began on 18 February 1948 on board the ship HMIS Talwar in Mumbai. On 19 February, the Central Naval Strike Committee was formed. The riot spread from Mumbai to other port cities. About 2,000 sailors, about 78 ships and many affiliated institutions joined the strike. The rioters received huge public support. About 250 people were killed in the riot, more than a thousand were injured and about 20,000 people lost their jobs. The riot, which lasted for six days from Monday, 18 February 1946 to Saturday, 23 February 1946, was called off following peace talks between Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and Aruna Asaf Ali.

Cabinet Mission (1946)

In March 1946, Britain sent a three-member British Cabinet mission to India to discuss the terms of the transfer of power with Indian leaders. Pethick Lawrence, Sir Stafford Cripps, A.V. Alexander and others were its members. After lengthy discussions with Indian leaders, the Cabinet Mission put forward its plan. It contained the following recommendations.

■ An Indian Union should be formed, including the British provinces and the princely states. India should remain united.

■ The Union should handle defense, foreign affairs, and communications. Other matters should be handled by the provinces and princely states.

■ The existing provinces would be divided into three groups, A, B, and C. Group A would include the Hindu-majority provinces. Group B would include the Muslim-majority provinces in the north-west. Group C would include the Muslim-majority provinces in the north-east, including Assam.

■ A Constituent Assembly would be convened for an independent Indian Union. This Assembly would be elected by the provincial assemblies.

■ An interim government would be formed at the Centre, comprising leaders of various political parties, until a constitution was drawn up.

Initially, all political parties accepted the plan of the Cabinet Mission. But this agreement did not last long. This was because the Congress and the League interpreted the objectives of the plan in conflict with each other. The League interpreted the “grouping” of the provinces as mandatory. The League also argued that the provinces in Groups B and C had the right to secede from the Union in the future. However, the Congress interpreted the grouping as optional. The Congress argued that the right to join any group should be left to the provinces. These opposing positions of the League and the Congress paved the way for the final failure of the Cabinet Mission plan. The League soon withdrew its support for the plan. With this, the Cabinet Mission's final attempt to solve the Indian problem without partitioning India failed.

Mountbatten Plan (1947)

On 20 February 1947, British Prime Minister Clement Attlee made a historic announcement. The government announced that the British would leave India by June 1948 and transfer power to the Indians. Following this, Lord Mountbatten was sent to India as the new Viceroy. From 24 March to mid-April 1947, he held talks with Indian leaders. He was convinced that the only way to solve the Indian problem was partition. He persuaded Congress to accept partition. The Mountbatten Plan proposed the division of India into two independent nations - the Indian Union and Pakistan. The plan was finalised by V.P. Menon. The Mountbatten Plan was announced on 3 June. Hence, it is also known as the June 3 Plan. According to the plan, those who wanted to leave the Indian Union would be free to do so and those who wanted to join the Indian Union would be free to do so. The princely states would be free to join the Indian Union or Pakistan. The Congress and the Muslim League accepted the Mountbatten Plan. In July 1947, the British Parliament passed the 'Indian Independence Act', giving legitimacy to the Mountbatten Plan.

Indian Independence Act 1947 (1947)

In July 1947, the British Parliament passed the Indian Independence Act. With this, two independent countries, India and Pakistan, came into being. On August 14, a new nation called Pakistan came into being. On August 15, India became independent.

Integration of Princely States (1947)

One of the major challenges after independence was the integration of the Indian princely states. This task was accomplished by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, known as the Iron Man of India, and his secretary V.P. Menon. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, through his "Iron Fist in a Velvet Glove" policies, integrated all the princely states into the Indian Union. Of the 565 princely states, the vast majority agreed to join the Indian Union. Only Junagadh, Travancore, Kashmir, and Hyderabad showed reluctance to join the Indian Union. Jammu and Kashmir was the most complex issue to deal with among the princely states. The king delayed taking a decision on joining India. Meanwhile, the Pakistani army invaded Kashmir. The Maharaja sought India's help. After the king agreed to sign the Instrument of Accession with India, India sent troops to Kashmir.

Indian after Independence

State Reorganisation

According to the Constitution of India, which came into force on 26 January 1950, the states were divided into Part-A, Part-B and Part-C.

Part-A states - Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, Bombay, Madhya Pradesh, Madras, Orissa, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh (United Provinces).

Part-B states - Hyderabad, Jammu and Kashmir, Mysore, Madhya Bharat, Patiala and East Punjab States Union, Rajasthan, Saurashtra, Travancore - Cochin

Part-C states - Ajmer, Bhopal, Coorg, Himachal Pradesh, Kutch, Manipur, Tripura, Delhi, Vindhya Pradesh

Linguistic states

The need for the formation of states on the basis of languages ​​were raised even after independence. Potti Sriramulu of Andhra Pradesh began a hunger strike on 19 October 1952, demanding a separate state for Telugu speakers. He died on 16 December 1952. Following this, Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru announced the formation of a new state on 19 December. Andhra State came into existence on 1 October 1953. Andhra Pradesh State was formed on 1 November 1956, with parts of Telangana and Hyderabad as its capital. The Fazal Ali Commission was appointed in December 1953 to form states on the basis of language. The other members of the Commission were K.M. Panicker and H.N. Kunzru. Following the recommendations of the Commission, the states were reorganized on the basis of language on 1 November 1956. 14 states and 6 union territories came into existence. Andhra Pradesh was the first state to be created in India on the basis of language.

Chinese attack in 1962

Main issues that led to the war between India and China in 1962

1. Tibetan issue

2. Border dispute 

1. Tibetan issue

Tibet is a region that India and China wanted to remain independent. China invaded Tibet and made it a part of it in 1959. An uprising began in Tibet against this. China tried to suppress these uprisings vigorously. India condemned it and was upset with the suppression of the freedom and culture of the Tibetan people. In 1959, the Dalai Lama, the spiritual leader of the Tibetan people, sought political asylum in India after escaping the Chinese attack. Although China opposed giving him asylum, India refused and granted him asylum. This was seen by China as an anti-China act and became the main reason for the war between the two countries.

2. Border dispute

China was not ready to accept India's claim that the border issue between the two countries was resolved during the colonial period. China also claimed the Aksai Chin region in the Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir and some parts of the present-day state of Arunachal Pradesh (NEFA – North Eastern Frontier Agency). Although India-China talks were held, no solution was reached. They also caused war on this issue. In October 1962, China simultaneously attacked the Aksai Chin region of Kashmir and parts of Arunachal Pradesh. China unilaterally declared a ceasefire in December 1962. China's completely unexpected attack affected India in various ways. The Chinese attack tarnished the country's image both inside and outside India.

To overcome the crisis, help had to be sought from the leadership of both the power blocs. With little help from the United States and Britain, and complete silence from the Soviet Union, India was completely isolated. Nehru's leadership and foreign policy were severely criticized within India. A no-confidence motion was presented against the government in the Lok Sabha. Taking responsibility for the defeat, many army officers and the Minister of National Defence V.K. Krishna Menon had to resign. In the by-elections to the Lok Sabha held after the war, the Congress Party was defeated in many constituencies. The Chinese attack also affected the opposition. This led to the split of the Communist Party of India (CPI). Those who recognized China as the leader of the world communist movement and were inclined towards Chinese communism split from the CPI and formed a new party called CPI(M). Those who accepted the Soviet Union as the leader of the world communist movement and aligned themselves with it continued to be the CPI. It paved the way for strengthening national consciousness in India and for the development and empowerment of the northeastern region of India, which shares a border with China.

India-China Relations After 1962

It took more than a decade for India-China relations to normalize after the war. Full diplomatic relations were reestablished between the two countries in 1976. In 1979, External Affairs Minister A.B. Vajpayee visited China. Rajiv Gandhi, who came to power in 1984, was the first Prime Minister to visit China after Nehru. Despite political problems, the two countries have been trying to expand trade and commercial relations.

Wars and Peace with Pakistan

Immediately after the partition of India and Pakistan, a war-like atmosphere arose between India and Pakistan over Kashmir in 1947. The Kashmir issue was referred to the United Nations for consideration. Although Kashmir remained an issue between the two countries, it did not hinder cooperation between the two governments. In 1960, India and Pakistan signed the Indus Waters Treaty to share the waters of the Indus River.

The 1965 War

In 1965, India took strong military action against the Pakistani army's Operation Gibraltar. The conflict was over Kashmir. This is known as the Second Indo-Pakistani War. The conflict, which began on August 5, 1965 and ended on September 23, caused heavy blow on both sides. Following the intervention of the then superpowers, the Soviet Union and the United States, a ceasefire was implemented. The famous Tashkent Agreement is part of this. On January 10, 1966, the agreement was signed in Tashkent, then part of the Soviet Union, by Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri and Pakistani President Ayub Khan.

The 1971 War

The 1971 war was caused by developments related to the formation of present-day Bangladesh (East Pakistan). After the victory, the unwillingness to give governance to East Pakistan led to a massive popular uprising. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was arrested without respecting the public sentiment and the uprisings were strongly suppressed. Following this, the people of East Pakistan declared the region an independent country under the name 'Bangladesh' and fought fiercely against the Pakistani army. The Indian army entered East Pakistan and fought a war against West Pakistan in December 1971. Subsequently, in 1971, the country of Bangladesh came into existence. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman took office as the first Prime Minister of Bangladesh (in 1972). The Simla Agreement was signed on 3 July 1972. The Simla Agreement was signed by Pakistani Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto and Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi.

National Emergency, 1975

The 21-month National Emergency, which lasted from 25 June 1975 to 21 March 1977, is a dark chapter in the history of independent India. The Emergency was imposed by a judgment of the Allahabad High Court on 12 June 1975. The court sympathetically considered a petition filed by BLD leader Rajnarayan, who was Indira Gandhi's main opponent in the 1971 Lok Sabha elections. Justice Jag Mohan Lal Sinha found that Indira had misused government machinery in the election. The court declared Indira's election invalid and banned her from contesting elections for six years. The stage for Indira's election campaign meeting was set up by the state police. The court's verdict was based on findings such as the participation of government officials in the campaign. The court, which barred Indira from the post of Prime Minister, also allowed her to continue in office for 20 days until another mechanism was in place. Instead of resigning, Indira Gandhi asked the President to declare a state of internal emergency. On 26 June 1975, at 7 am, President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed imposed a state of emergency in the country under Article 352 of the Constitution. The President complied with Indira Gandhi's request to extend the state of emergency every six months. On 21 March 1977, the Acting President, B.D. Jatti, lifted the emergency. On January 18, Indira Gandhi announced that elections would be held by mid-March 1977. However, the elections resulted in the first non-Congress government in India coming to power at the Centre. Indira Gandhi lost to Raj Narayan by 55,202 votes in the Rae Bareli constituency in Uttar Pradesh.

Kargil War

In 1999, militants crossed the Line of Control with the help of the Pakistani army and infiltrated the 'Kargil' region of Kashmir. This led to the Indo-Pak conflict. This was a conflict confined to the Kargil region. The Indian army recaptured the Kargil region, which was captured by the Pakistani army and Mujahideen terrorists.