Ancient History of India

Indus Valley Civilization

Since it developed from the Indus River Valley, this civilization is called the Indus Valley Civilization. It was one of the most advanced civilizations in the world and is also known as the Harappan civilization. The Indus Valley Civilization was destroyed either by the arrival of the Aryans or by natural disasters. Brick was an important building material of the Harappan people. Pashupati, the mother goddess, and the bull were the main worshipped deities of the Harappan people. The dog was an animal that the Indus Valley people domesticated. The Sumerians called the Indus Valley people 'Meluha'. The main food grains of the Harappan civilization were wheat and barley. The main trading center of the Harappan people was Lothal. Iron and horses were unknown to the Indus Valley people. The first Harappan city discovered after India's independence was Rupar in Punjab. The Harappan people were the first to cultivate cotton.

Vedic period (BC 1500 - BC 600)

The ancient civilization that existed in India was destroyed with the arrival of the Aryans. The Aryans migrated to India via Punjab. The period of Aryans is known as Vedic Period. It is divided into two as Early Vedic period (BC 1500 to BC 1000) and the Later Vedic period (BC 1000 to BC 600). The meaning of word Aryan is warrior, knowledgeable and honorable. Their main cultivations are Wheat and Barley.

Buddhism

In 563 BC, Siddhartha was born with all kinds of good fortune as the son of Shuddhodhana, the leader of the Shakya dynasty and the ruler of Kapilavastu, and Mayadevi. Since he was born in the Shakya dynasty, he was also known as Shakyamuni. However, Siddhartha was not interested in pleasures from childhood. His father, who was always thoughtful and silent, married him to Yashodhara at the age of eighteen. Once, while walking along the road, the sights he saw made Siddhartha sad. After that, Siddhartha, who was silent, left all pleasures, his wife, and his son one night. Siddhartha immersed himself in intense meditation to find the ultimate truth. While meditating under a pipe tree in Gaya, he attained enlightenment. Thus, Siddhartha became the Buddha. After enlightenment, the Buddha's first sermon was in Sarnath, near Varanasi. The Buddha's sermon was in the common language of the people, "Ardhamagadhi". He strongly opposed the religious and social evils that existed at that time and the caste system in the Hindu community. Believing that the cause of all human suffering is desire and that only by giving up desire can the problems of life be solved, he proposed the Ashtanga Marga as a solution. Thus, his Buddhism was able to spread throughout the country.

Buddhism is based on the principle of the Eightfold Path. The Three Jewels of Buddhism are the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha. The event when the Buddha renounced everything, left the palace, and took up sannyasa is called the "Great Renunciation." The death of the Buddha is known as "Parinirvana." The Buddhist scriptures are the "Tripitaka".

Buddhist principles

The basic principles of Buddhism are four. These are called the "Four Noble Truths".

The Eight Fold PathRight Belief, Right Thought, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Meditation

Jainism

The founder of Jainism is Vardhamana Mahavira. Mahavira was born in Vaishali in 540 BC. Rishabha Deva was the first Tirthankara of Jainism. The word 'Tirthankaras' means those who have received the ring of the hand. Mahavira attained enlightenment at the age of forty-two in the village of Jrumbhi. Jamali was one of Mahavira's main disciples. Jainism was divided into two sects, 'Swetambaras' and 'Digambaras', at the first Jain council. The first Jain council was held in Pataliputra in 310 BC. The second Jain council was held in Vallabhi in 453 AD.

Mahajanapadas

The 'Mahajanapadas' were 16 small kingdoms in northern India. The major kingdoms were Magadha, Kosala, Avanti and Vatsama. The dominant kingdom during the time of the Buddha was Kosala. Ayodhya and Saketa were two cities of Kosala. Kosala eventually came under the control of Magadha. The capital of Magadha was first Girivraja, then Rajagriha and then Pataliputra. The first known king of Magadha was Brihadratha. Bimbisara, a contemporary of the Buddha and Mahavira, was the main king who ruled Magadha. 'Pataliputra' was founded by Ajatasatru. It is believed that the Buddha and Mahavira attained samadhi during the time of Ajatasatru.

Alexander's Invasion of India

Alexander the Great is one of the greatest rulers in world history. He was born in 356 BC in Pella, the capital of the Macedonian Empire. His parents were King Philip II of Macedonia and the Queen of Epirus. Since childhood, Alexander had been inspired by the Greek warrior Achilles. Therefore, he carried the Iliad with him wherever he went. In 343 BC, Alexander came under the tutelage of Aristotle. His favorite horse was Bucephalus. In 336 BC, at the age of twenty, Alexander became the ruler of Macedonia. In 334 BC, Alexander began his famous campaigns. After conquering the Persians, he entered Egypt. In 331 BC, he founded a city there called Alexandria. In 326 BC, Alexander invaded India. King Ambhi of Taxila surrendered. Several local kings then surrendered to Alexander without a fight. However, Purushottam (Porus), the ruler of the region between the Jhelum and Chenab rivers, faced Alexander but could not hold his ground. Alexander defeated the Indian king Porus in the Battle of the Hydaspes. Although defeated, Alexander agreed to return the territories he had captured to Porus. In October 326 BC, Alexander returned from India. The expedition encountered many difficulties on its journey to Persia via Afghanistan. He died in Babylonia in 323 BC.

Mauryan Empire

In 321 BC, Chandragupta Maurya founded the Mauryan Empire. Chandragupta's rule brought relief to the people who were struggling with foreign invasions. Chandragupta's son Bindusara succeeded Chandragupta. He led the country to a better economic situation. Bindusara was succeeded by his son Ashoka. After Ashoka, the Mauryan Empire came to the brink of collapse. Ashoka's non-violence and Buddhist principles as a political policy led to the decline of the Mauryan military power and the rise of disintegration in the country. In 185 BC, the last Mauryan king, Brihadratha, was killed by his general Pushyamitra. Then, Pushyamitra, a Brahmin, founded the Sunga dynasty.

Kalinga Dynasty

After the collapse of the Mauryan Empire, Mahadeva Vahana, a Chedi dynasty from Madhya Pradesh, established power in Kalinga. The most famous king of that dynasty was Kharavela (176 - 163 BC), the grandson of Mahadeva Vahana. Kharavela was a king who was interested in the welfare of the people. Information about Kharavela is found in the 'Hathigumpha Inscription' found at Udayagiri near Cuttack.

Satavahana Dynasty (230 BC – 220 BC)

The founder of the Satavahana dynasty was Simuha. The Satavahanas are also known as 'Andhrakars'. Their center of rule was Andhradesam, one of the states of Ashoka. After Ashoka's death, Simuha led them to conquer this region and establish the Satavahana dynasty with 'Srikakulam' as their capital. Gautamiputra Satakarni, Gautamiputra Yajnaashree, Pulamavi etc. are the Satavahana kings. The rule of the Satavahanas is an important chapter in the history of India. Prakrit was the official language. When foreigners like the Yavanas tried to establish dominance, the Satavahanas protected India. The pillars at Amaravati, Goli and Nagarjunakonda were built by the Satavahanas.

Indo Greek Kingdom

From the 2nd century BC onwards, India was invaded by foreign invaders. The first of these was by the Bactrian Greeks. Bactria (northern Afghanistan), which had been under Greek rule during the time of Alexander, became an independent state in the 3rd century BC. However, the position of the Bactrian rulers was not secure. The Scythians (Sakans) of Central Asia were constantly threatening them. When the Scythian attacks intensified, the Bactrians were forced to move towards India.

The invasion of India was initiated by Demetrius, the ruler of Bactria. The Bactrians who invaded India became known as the Indo-Greeks or Bactrian Greeks. They occupied a large part of northwestern India in the early 2nd century BC. The Indo-Greeks, who had taken control of Punjab and Sindh, are said to have reached Pataliputra.

The most famous of the Indo-Greek rulers was Menander or Milinda. He ruled from 150 to 135 BC. He was able to consolidate Indo-Greek rule in northwestern India. Records say that Menander embraced Buddhism. He was converted to Buddhism by a Buddhist monk named Nagasena. The questions asked by Menander about Buddhism and the answers given by Nagasena to them are recorded in a book. The book is called 'Milinda Panha' or "Questions of Milinda".

The Indo-Greek kingdoms began to collapse with the invasion of the Saka in the 1st century BC. The Indo-Greek rule, which lasted for a century and a half, brought about important changes in Indian art and monetary system. Greek rule introduced Hellenistic art to India, and they built many magnificent buildings. They also introduced small and beautiful objects that displayed their craftsmanship.

The coins of the Indo-Greeks make them historically important. The Indo-Greeks were the first to issue gold coins in India. Coins were issued in the name of kings, and the coins bore images of kings and gods. The history of the Indo-Greeks is reconstructed mainly on the basis of their coins.

Saka Dynasty

After the Indo-Greeks, the Saka people established dominance in the northwestern parts of India. The Scythians, a tribe of Central Asia, are referred to as Saka in Indian records. The Saka people were nomads and herders. Later, they turned to agriculture. The Saka people, who had an extraordinary skill in using animals for transportation, became masters of the trade routes. When the pastures of Central Asia began to dry up, they moved east. However, the Chinese emperor Shi Huangdi built the Great Wall and stopped the Saka people from advancing. With this, the Saka people turned towards Bactria. A section of them settled in Afghanistan, while other branches made raids into India.

The Sakas invaded India in the 1st century BC. They conquered more territory in India than the Indo-Greeks. The Sakas ruled over Punjab, Gandhara, Mathura, western India, and the highlands of the Deccan. The first Saka king in India, Maus, ruled Gandhara (80 BC). Maus' successor, Ases, conquered the Indo-Greek territories. He is associated with the year 58 BC. The most prominent and longest-ruling of the Sakas who came to India was the Sakas of Western India. The Saka rule here lasted for four centuries. The most famous of the Shakas of Western India was Rudradaman (130-150 AD). He is known in history for his renovation of the Sudarshana Lake. This brought great relief to the farmers of Kathiawar who were suffering from drought. Although a foreigner, Rudradaman was the first to compose a long inscription in pure Sanskrit (the Girnar inscription).

The Sakas introduced the "Kshatrapa" (Satrap) system of government in India. According to this, the country was divided into several provinces. The responsibility of provincial administration was entrusted to a military governor known as the "Mahakshatrapa". The provinces were divided into sub-divisions and placed under the control of "Satrapas". The Sakas issued coins. Some of them bear the names of two kings. The arrival of the Sakas, although indirect, paved the way for the beginning of the Vikrama era. It is believed that in 58 BC, a king named Vikramaditya of Ujjain defeated the Sakas (Ases) and a new year called Vikrama era began to celebrate his victory. It is also known as Kritavarsham and Malavavarsham.

Sunga Dynasty (187 BC – 75 BC)

The Sunga were a Brahmin sect of Ujjain who served as officials under the Mauryans. Pushyamitra Sunga, the commander of the last Mauryan king, assassinated his master,  Brihadratha and seized power in 183 BC. He is often described as a strong advocate of Brahmanism. Pushyamitra Sunga is said to have performed two horse sacrifices. Buddhist literature portrays him as a persecutor of Buddhism. These texts accuse Pushyamitra of destroying many Buddhist monasteries and stupas.

Nine people ruled the Sunga kingdom after Pushyamitra. His son and successor, Agnimitra, is the protagonist of Kalidasa's Malavika Agnimitra. Another notable ruler of the Sunga dynasty is Bhagavata. Heliodorus was sent to the court of the Greek king as an ambassador. This shows that the Sungas had friendly relations with the Indo-Greeks. Heliodorus later converted to the Bhagavata religion. The last Sungas ruler, Devabhuti, was a weak ruler. Vasudevakanvan assassinated him and seized power through a conspiracy. This ended the Sungas rule.

The Sungas period witnessed the revival of Brahmanism. The importance of Bhagavata religion also increased during this period. The famous grammarian Patanjali was a contemporary of Pushyamitra. The Sungas period also witnessed the growth of a new art form, completely different from the Mauryan art. The carvings and stupas at Bharhat reflect contemporary Indian life.

Kanva Dynasty (BC 75 – BC 28)

The Kanva Dynasty was founded in 75 BC by Vasudeva Kanva. Vasudeva Kanva came to power by assassinating the last king of the Sunga dynasty, Devabhuti. The Kanva Dynasty continued in power until 28 BC.

Kushan Empire

The Kushan Empire was founded in the 1st century AD by Kadphisus I. The most powerful king of this dynasty was Kanishka, who ruled from 78 to 120 AD. He made 'Purushapuram' (present-day Peshawar) his capital and expanded his empire to Afghanistan and Bactria. Within India, Punjab, Sindh, Kashmir and Uttar Pradesh came under Kanishka's control. The ruins of buildings built by Kanishka in Purushpuram, Takshashila and Mathura can still be seen. Kanishka started the Saka era in 78 AD. The first month of the Saka era is Chaitra and the last month is Phalguna. The Kushans were the first to introduce gold coins in India. The Fourth Buddhist Council was held during Kanishka's reign. Kanishka was the first king to engrave the image of the Buddha on coins. Scholars like Nagarjuna, Ashwaghosha, Vasumitra, Charaka, and Sushruta graced the court of Kanishka.

Sangam period (BC 300 – AD 300)

The Sangam works provide information about the social structure and agricultural systems that existed at that time. Tamil Nadu was divided into five regions. Regions have unique geographical structures and corresponding labor practices. 

The five regions are Kurunji, Palai, Mullai, Marutham and Neithal. Kurunji is the mountainous region, Palai is the dry region, Mullai is the forest region, Marutham is the arable land in the river valley and Neithal is the coastal region.

The people of Kurunji were known as Kanavas, Vedars and Kooravas. Their main occupations were hunting and gathering food, and animals like elephants, lions, bears and various birds can be seen in the Kurunchithina. Teak, sandalwood and bamboo are the main trees found in this area. Worship god, Cheon.

The two main groups living in the Palai area were the Maravars and the Vettuvars. They could not produce anything in the Palai area. Because it was a dry area. Therefore, they used to rob people for their livelihood. Worship god, Kottavai.

Mullai was a grazing area during the Sangha period. Herding cattle was the main source of livelihood for the inhabitants of this area. They lived by exploiting the forest resources. The people living in this area were shepherds. Worship god, Mayon

The people living in the Marutham were known as Uzhavars or Vellalars. The main occupation of the people here was agriculture. The main crops were paddy, sugarcane, mango, banana, jackfruit, etc. Marutham was the settlement of farmers. Worship god, Venthan.

The coastal region is the Weaving. People like Paratha, Parathiyar, Meenavar, Alavar, and Alathiar lived here. Fishing and salt cultivation were the main occupations. Worship god, Kadlon.

These people lived as communities in various talukas. The products of all the five talukas were used efficiently. The resources produced and collected in each taluka were exchanged. The exchange centers were called markets. Trade networks were formed between the talukas. Rivers provided communication between political centers and port cities. Exchange and foreign trade led to the growth of cities. The bases of kings and chiefs were on the hills. They were provided with military assistance by the Maravas.

Pandya Dynasty

The Pandya Dynasty is one of the oldest dynasties in South India. The first mention of the Pandyas was made by Megasthenes. He described it as a pearl-producing kingdom. The Ashoka Edicts also mention this kingdom, and the early Pandya kingdom was located at the southern tip of the peninsula. It included the present-day districts of Madurai, Ramnadu, Tirunelveli and Kanyakumari.

The most famous of the Pandya kings was Nedunchezhiyan. Nedunchezhiyan defeated an allied army consisting of the Cheras, Cholas and five Kurunila Mannas. He was victorious in the battle of Thalaiyalankanam near Thiruvallur. With this victory, he came to be known as the Pandyan in Thalaiyalankanam.

Madurai was the capital of the Pandyas. The main ports here were Korkai and Kayal. The Pandya kings made great gains through trade with the Roman Empire. It was these trade relations that prompted them to send envoys to the Roman Emperor Augustus.

The power of the Pandyas declined in the post-Sanga period, and the Pallavas established dominance in South India. However, in the 7th century AD, the Pandya power was restored under the leadership of a king named Katungon. The Pandya kingdom included the present Madurai-Tirunelveli districts. Madurai was the capital of the Pandya kings.

The Pandyas, who rose to power in the 7th century, maintained their power until the 14th century. Their history in between is one of ups and downs. The Pandyas, who established political dominance in the areas from Travancore to the borders of Andhra, were at some point subjected to the domination of other powers, especially the Cholas. It was only when the power of the Cholas waned that the Pandyan kingdom became independent from their domination.

The Pandyas were freed from Chola control during the reign of Maravarman Sundara Pandyan (1216–38). He defeated the Chola king Rajadhiraja III and destroyed the cities of Thanjavur and Urayur by burning them. Maravarman, the most capable of the Pandyan kings, defeated his opponents one by one. He performed many yagnas. He was generous and gave gifts to the Shiva temple in Chidambaram and the Vishnu temple in Srirangam.

Another important ruler of the Pandya kingdom, Maravarman Kulasekara (1263-1310), continued his efforts to expand the borders of the kingdom. It was during his reign that the Venetian traveler Marco Polo visited the Pandya kingdom. Towards the end of Maravarman Kulasekara's reign, a power struggle began between his sons Sundara Pandya and Veera Pandya. It was also during this period that Malik Kafur, the commander of Alauddin Khilji's army, invaded the Pandya kingdom. Ravi Varma Kulasekara, who ruled Venad, took advantage of this opportunity to invade the Pandya kingdom and occupy areas up to Kanchi. Following this, he crowned himself as the emperor of South India. Alauddin Khilji's armies dealt a final blow to the Pandyas. Even Madurai fell into their hands. The Pandyas could not escape this blow. Later, the rulers of Vijayanagara incorporated the Pandyas' territories into their empire, and the Pandya kingdom disappeared.

Chola Dynasty

The Chola dynasty was one of the dynasties that ruled South India. The Coromandel coast from Nellore to Pudukkottai was part of the Chola kingdom. The Chola kingdom was the area between the Pennar and Vellar rivers. It was located on the eastern coast of South India. The eastern coast is also known as the Coromandel coast. The Chola kingdom included the present-day Thanjavur and Trichinella districts and a part of the old Pudukkottai state. The center of political power of the Cholas was Uraiyur.

Karikala Chola was the most famous of the Chola kings. He defeated his contemporary Chera and Pandya kings in the Battle of Venni. He defeated an enemy alliance formed by nine Kurunila Mannas. The most important event during his reign was the establishment of the city of Puhar. It later became known as Kaveripattana. Karikala was a very capable ruler. He took the initiative to clear forests to make settlements. He also built many ponds for irrigation. The textile trade flourished during this period. He paid special attention to educational matters. He patronized many poets and scholars.

In the 4th century AD, the power of the Cholas waned due to the combined attacks of the Cheras and the Pandyas. After the death of Karikala, internal conflicts arose among the Cholas. As a result, the power of the Cholas waned. With the invasion of the Pallavas from the north, the dominance of the Cholas was completely destroyed. The Cholas disappeared as a political power between the 4th and 9th centuries AD. However, they regained power in the 9th century AD and remained in power until the 13th century.

The Chola Empire was reestablished by Vijayalaya. In 850 AD, he captured Thanjavur and established the Chola Empire by making it his capital. During the reigns of his successors Aditya Chola and Parantaka Chola, the Chola Empire expanded its borders into neighboring countries through wars. The Chola Empire, which lasted for about four centuries, was ruled by eighteen kings. Rajaraja I and Rajendra Chola were prominent among them.

Chera Dynasty

The Cheras were one of the major powers that dominated Tamil Nadu during the Sangam period. The early Chera empire included the state of Kerala and some parts of Salem-Coimbatore districts. In the first centuries of the Christian era, the Cheras had status and power equal to the Cholas and Pandyas. The first Chera king of the Sangha period was Perumchottu Udiyan Cheralathan. He was a contemporary of Karikala Chola. His successor, Imayavaramban Nedumcheralathan, fought against the Kadambars of Banavasi. He also fought and won against the Yavanas. The most prominent of the early Cheras was Chenguttuvan. He was a great lover of art and literature. He took steps to promote trade and commercial affairs. The Patittupat is a work that throws light on the history of the early Chera kings.

The capital of the early Cheras was Vanchimuthur. The decline of the Chera dynasty was due to the incompetence of the kings. Internal weaknesses and economic crises accelerated the decline. The attacks of the Kalabhra king Achyutavikantha and the dominance of dynasties such as the Chalukyas, Pallavas, Pandyas and Cholas also paved the way for the decline of the Chera kingdom. After the 2nd century AD, the power of the Cheras began to decline. There is no information available about the history of the Chera dynasty until the 8th century AD. However, in the 9th century AD, Chera power was restored. The kings of the later Chera kingdom were known as 'Kulashekaras'. This period is generally referred to by historians as the "Perumal period".

Kulasekhara Azhvar (Kulasekharavarman) was the founder of the Second Chera Kingdom. Their capital was Makothai or Mahodayapuram near Kodungallur. The capital city was situated around the Shiva temple at Thiruvanchikulam. The city of Mahathevar, which was a city of Shiva temples, later became Mahodayapuram. The re-establishment of the Chera Kingdom is associated with the growth of a Brahmin-dominated society. The Brahmins welcomed a monarchy in place of the tribal society. The Chera kings and the Brahmins helped each other and it was beneficial for both groups.

About thirteen kings ruled the Second Chera Kingdom. Their exact chronology is not available. Kulasekara Azhwar, the founder of the Second Chera Kingdom  is the author of the Sanskrit poem 'Mukundamala'. He also wrote the famous devotional book in Tamil 'Perumal Thirumozhi'. The second Chera king, Rajashekaravarman, was a devotee of Shiva. He was also known as "Cheramaan Perumal Nayanar". The Kollavarsham, which began in 825 AD, was established during the reign of Rajashekaravarma.

The next Chera emperor, Sthanuravivarman, was the most notable ruler of the Kulasekaras. The famous Tharisappally Edict (Cheppedu) was prepared in 849 AD. The famous astronomer Sankaranarayanan was Sthanuravi's chief scholar. A well-equipped astronomical observatory was functioning under his supervision at Mahodayapuram. Arab travelers like Sulaiman visited Kerala during Sthanuravi's reign.

Bhaskara Ravivarman I was one of the prominent Chera kings who came to power after Sthanuravivarman. The Jewish edict he wrote to Joseph Rabban, the Jewish leader of Mahodayapuram, is a document of great historical importance. It is a royal proclamation granting Joseph Rabban the title of "Anchuvanna" with seventy-two rights.

The Chola-Chera war began during the reign of Bhaskara Ravivarman. The last Chera king, Ramavarma Kulasekharan, strongly resisted the attacks of the Cholas, but could not save the country from disintegration. The prolonged Chola-Chera war led to the decline of Mahodayapuram and the loss of its political importance. Internal problems and external attacks spelled the end of the Chera rule. By the beginning of the twelfth century, the Perumal rule had disappeared.

Pallava Dynasty

The Pallavas of Kanchi were one of the most important dynasties that ruled South India. There is no consensus among historians about the origin of the Pallavas. One school of thought suggests that the Pallavas were a branch of the foreign Parthians, but there is no evidence of the Parthians migrating to South India. Another school of thought argues that the Pallavas were a branch of the Vakadakas, a Brahmin dynasty of the Deccan, but this theory is also unsupported by evidence. Another view is that the Pallavas were a local dynasty that emerged after the collapse of the Ikshvaku kingdom. According to this theory, the Pallavas were Nagas.

It is generally believed that the Pallavas were the original inhabitants of the Thondaimandalam. Thondaimandalam was a province of Ashoka's empire. 'Pallavan' is the Sanskrit form of the Tamil word 'Thondair', hence the inhabitants of Thondaimandalam were known as Pallavas. The Pallava power extended from Krishna to Kaveri. It included southern Andhra and northern Tamil Nadu.

The Pallava dynasty came to political power in the middle of the 3rd century AD. However, their heyday began towards the end of the 6th century. It was Simhavishnu (575-600) who raised the Pallava to a dominant power. He extended the Pallava power up to the Kaveri, and after Simhavishnu, about twelve kings ruled the Pallava kingdom. Prominent among them were Mahendravarman I and Narasimhavarman.

Gupta Empire (AD 3rd Century – AD 550)

After the collapse of the Mauryan Empire, India did not experience a stable government until the establishment of the Gupta Empire in 320 AD. Historians describe the Gupta period as the golden age of Indian history. The major kings who ruled the Gupta Empire were Chandragupta I, Chandragupta II, and Samudragupta.

Huns Invasion of India

When the Gupta Empire declined, North India and the Deccan regions were divided into many independent kingdoms. Kingdoms such as Malavam and Vakadam gained power. The Huns also became dominant. The Huns were a primitive race that arrived from Central Asia to the central parts of Europe in the 4th century AD. A section of them attacked India and Persia, but Skandagupta defeated them. Later, the Huns, who entered India in large numbers, conquered Gandhara and defeated the Kushans and Shakas. In the 6th century, the Hun leader Toraman conquered Punjab and Rajputana and ruled with the title of 'Maharajadhi Rajan' with Sialkot as the capital. After Toraman, his son Mihirakulan became king in 510 AD. With the death of Mihirakulan, the Hun dynasty declined and was uprooted by the invasion of the Turks. The Gupta Empire collapsed with the arrival of the Huns.

Chalukya Dynasty (Chalukyas)

The Chalukyas were a prominent political power that emerged in the Deccan after the fall of the Satavahanas. They became a dominant power in the 6th century AD. The origin of the Chalukyas is unclear. There were three branches among them;

(1) Western Chalukyas or Chalukyas of Vatapi

(2) Later Western Chalukyas or Chalukyas of Kalyani

(3) Eastern Chalukyas or Chalukyas of Vengi

Harshavardhana Empire

The glory and tradition of India that had been shattered after the Gupta period was restored by Harshavardhana, a king of the Pushyabhuti dynasty. Harshavardhana assumed power in 606 AD when he was only 16 years old. The first capital was Thaneswar. Later, the capital was chosen as Kannauj. Harshavardhana is considered to be the last Hindu emperor of North India. It was during Harshavardhana's reign that Xuanzang visited India. In 641 AD, Harshavardhana sent a mission to China. Harshavardhana was also the first Indian ruler to establish diplomatic relations with China. Mahendravarman I and Pulikesi II were contemporaries of Harshavardhana. The Sanskrit plays written by Harshavardhana are Ratnavali, Priyadarshika, and Nagananda. Banabhatta was the main poet in his court. Harshacharitam and Kadambari are works written by Banabhatta. Harshavardhana was defeated by the Chalukya king Pulikesi II in the battle of the Narmada basin.

Nalanda University

The most famous center of learning during Harsha's era was Nalanda University. It was founded by Kumaragupta I. Nalanda was a Buddhist monastery. Later, it grew into one of the highest educational institutions in India. Many valuable information about Nalanda is available from the accounts of Xuanzang. He describes the building of the university, the academic discussions, and the details of the studies.

Nalanda University had all kinds of facilities. There were three libraries with excellent collections: (1) Ratna Sagar (2) Ratnadhati (3) Ratnarajak. There were facilities for staying and studying in Nalanda. About ten thousand students from home and abroad lived and studied there. Many students from China, Korea, Japan, and Mongolia studied at Nalanda. Students were admitted on the basis of merit. An entrance examination was also conducted to assess their intellectual ability. Only those with high knowledge and intelligence were admitted to Nalanda. Xuanzang had the rare privilege of studying and serving as a teacher at Nalanda.

Nalanda University was a corporate body. It was governed democratically. The university's expenses were met by the income from land donated by various kings. Harshan donated 100 villages to Nalanda. The teaching method at Nalanda was quite modern. Discussions and lectures enlivened the study at Nalanda. Grammar, medicine, crafts, logic, and philosophy were compulsory subjects. K.M. Panicker opines that it was a university of high quality comparable to modern-day Cambridge and Oxford.

Rajput Dynasty

With the death of Harshavardhana, the Rajputs came to power. The major Rajput kingdoms were Kashmir, Malwa, Chedi, Sangal, Gandhara, Sindh, Gujarat, and Kanauj. The Rajputs were Hindus. They had an organized system of governance. There was also progress in the fields of art and literature during this period. Somadeva's Kathasarit Sagaram of Kashmir was composed during this period. The Lingaraja Temple in Bhubaneswar and the temples at Khajuraho are evidence of the artistic beauty of the Rajputs.