Science and Technology in India

Science and Technology in India

Ministries related to Science and Technology

■ Ministry of Science & Technology

In ancient times, Science & Technology was known as Natural Philosophy in India. The Ministry of Science and Technology was formed in May 1971. The Union Department of Science and Technology plays a crucial role in promoting science and technology in the country. This department provides detailed information on science education, scientific research and development. The Office of the Scientific Advisor to the Government of India was formed in November 1999. Currently, the Ministry of Science and Technology functions as three main departments - Department of Science & Technology (DST), Department of Biotechnology (DBT), and Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR)/Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR).

■ Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE)

The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) is a ministry of the Government of India came into existence on 1982. The main responsibility of Ministry of New and Renewable Energy is for the research and development, protection of intellectual property and foreign cooperation, promotion, and coordination in the renewable energy sources such as hydel, wind, biogas, battery energy and solar power.

■ Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES)

The Ministry of Earth Sciences came into existence on 29 January 2006. The headquarters of the Ministry of Earth Sciences is at Prithvi Bhavan, New Delhi. The National Centre for Seismology is under the Ministry of Earth Sciences. India Quake is an app released by the National Centre for Seismology in 2017 related to earthquakes.

■ Ministry of Education (MoE)/Ministry of Human Resource Development

Ministry of Education (MoE) is a ministry of the Government of India came into existence on 15 August 1947. The ministry is responsible for the implementation of the National Policy on Education. The Ministry is further divided into two departments - Department of School Education and Literacy and Department of Higher Education.

■ Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY)

Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology is a ministry of the Government of India came into existence on 2016. It was carved out of the Ministry of Communications and Information Technology on 2016. The ministry is responsible for IT policy, strategy and development of the electronics industry.

■ Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF & CC)

Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change is a ministry of the Government of India came into existence on 1985. The ministry is responsible for the planning, promoting, coordinating, and overseeing the implementation of forestry and environmental programmes in india.

■ Ministry of Agriculture

Ministry of Agriculture is a branch of Government of India for the formulation and administration of the rules and regulations and laws related to agriculture in India.

■ Ministry of Defence

The Ministry of Defence (MoD) is branch of Government of India which coordinates and supervise all agencies and functions of the government relating directly to national security and the Indian Armed Forces. 

■ Ministry of Ayush

The Ministry of Ayush is a branch of Government of India which is responsible for developing education, research and propagation of traditional medicine and alternative medicine systems in the country.

■ Ministry of Chemicals & Fertilizers

The Ministry of Chemicals & Fertilizers is a branch of Government of India. Currently, the Chemicals & Fertilizers functions as three main departments - Department of Chemicals and Petro-Chemicals, Department of Fertilizers, Department of Pharmaceuticals

■ Ministry of Health & Family Welfare

Ministry of Health & Family Welfare is an Indian government ministry charged with health policy in India. The two departments of the Ministry are as follows - Department of Health and Family Welfare and Department of Health Research.

Departments related to Science and Technology

■ Department of Atomic Energy (DAE)

For the implementation of atomic energy programmes, Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) was established. DAE was formed in 3rd August 1954. The headquarters of DAE is in Mumbai. It is directly under the Prime Minister of India.

■ Department of Biotechnology (DBT)

The Department of Biotechnology came into existence in 1986. The Department of Biotechnology came into existence during the Seventh Five Year Plan. Rajiv Gandhi was the Prime Minister of India when the Department of Biotechnology was formed. The Department of Biotechnology works under the Ministry of Science and Technology. The National Biopharma Mission is a project launched by the Department of Biotechnology in 2017 with the help of the World Bank.

■ Department of Science and Technology (DST)

The Department of Science and Technology (DST) is an indian government department established in May 1971 under the Ministry of Science and Technology in India. It is formed to promote science and technology and also to become a nodal department for organising, coordinating and promoting the activities of scientific and technology in india.

■ Department of Space (DoS)

The Department of Space (DoS) is an Indian government department established in 1972. It is responsible for the administration of programmes of space research and development. It manages various agencies and institutes related to space exploration and space technologies in the country. 

■ Department of Chemicals and Petrochemicals

Department of Chemicals and Petrochemicals was established under the Ministry of Chemicals & Fertilizers in 1991 and is responsible for the policy, planning, development, regulation of Chemicals & Petrochemicals Industries.

Department of Science and Technology (DST)

The Department of Science and Technology (DST) is an Indian government department established in May 1971 under the Ministry of Science and Technology in India. It is formed to promote science and technology and also to become a nodal department for organising, coordinating and promoting the activities of scientific and technology in India.

Main responsibilities of the Department of Science and Technology

• Formulation of policies relating to science and technology.

• Matters relating to the Science Advisory Committee of the Cabinet.

• Undertaking or financially sponsoring scientific and technological surveys, research designs and development activities.

• Allocating grants to scientific research institutions, scientific associations and bodies.

• Matters affecting scientific and technical departments/organisations/institutions. Example - financial officers, procurement and import policies and practices.

• Management Information Systems for science and technology and its coordination.

• Promotion of enterprises involving commercialization of such technology not under the Department of Science, Technology and Industrial Research. Matters relating to domestic technology for their promotion.

• All other measures necessary for the promotion of science and technology and their application for the development and security of the country.

• Dissemination of science and technology at the state, district and village levels for basic development through State Science and Technology Councils and other mechanisms.

• Making the benefits of science and technology available to the weaker sections of the society, women and other backward classes.

Areas in which the Department of Science and Technology has the power to take decisions

• Science and Engineering Research Council.

• Technology Development Board and related laws such as Research and Development Cess Act, 1986, Technology Development Board Act, 1995.

• National Council for Science and Technology Communication.

• National Science and Technology Entrepreneurship Development Board.

• Autonomous science and technology institutions related to the subject under the Department of Science and Technology including Institute of Astro-Physics and Institute of Geomagnetism.

a. Promotion and funding of professional science academies by the Department of Science and Technology.

b. Survey of India and National Atlas and Thematic Mapping Organisation.

c. National Special Data Infrastructure

d. National Innovation Foundation (Ahmedabad)

Nature and Scope of Science and Technology

Science and technology are branches of science that play an important role in the development of a country. Science is a Latin word. Technology comes from the Greek word technologia. The three major branches of science include physical science, life science, and earth science. Physical Science includes Physics, Chemistry, Geology, Astrology etc. Life Science includes Botany (Study of Plants) and Zoology (Study of Animals). Geology, Meteorology, Oceanography, and Astronomy are the branches of Earth Science. Anthropology, Sociology, Economics etc are examples of Soft Science. The main objective of Science and Technology is to promote the most innovative areas in the fields of science and technology.

Science is a systematic approach that helps us understand the natural world through observation, investigation, and analysis. In order to explain events, trends and provide forecasts, it uses empirical data. Conversely, technology is the application of scientific ideas and understanding to solve practical problems and improve human life. Natural sciences, Social sciences, Interdisciplinary sciences and Applied sciences are the scopes of science. In many different sectors, such as manufacturing, communications, transportation, healthcare, and agriculture, technology plays a significant role in economic expansion and social progress. Technology came into existence from early breakthroughs like printing press and wheel to more recent ones like computer, mobile phones and artificial intelligence. Advancing Healthcare, Fostering Innovation, Enhancing Communication, Solving Global Challenges, Driving Economic Growth, Empowering Education, Improving Quality of Life among other areas are the applications of Science and Technology.

Relevance of Science and Technology

Science and Technology make life easier and more comfortable for people. Science and technology enable us to save both time and money. Knowledge, Skills and Techniques, Discovery, Understanding and Application are the five components of Science and Technology. Science and technology are crucial in our day to day life as they have made things more simple, fast and secured.

Relevance of Science and Technology in different sectors

1. Agriculture

The agriculture sector has been significantly impacted by scientific and technical advancements. Soil cultivation, crop cultivation and harvesting, animal production, and the processing of plant and animal products for human consumption and use are considered to be among these technologies.

2. Medicine

Science and Technology studies the new concepts of science and medicine and their relevance to science education.

3. Healthcare

Science and Technology in healthcare enables healthcare professionals to compare patient health data, identify risk factors, and recommend preventive measures.

4. Environment

Science and Technology helps in improving productivity, conserving resources and protecting the environment. With the right use of technology, we can reduce greenhouse gas changes by generating less carbon dioxide emissions.

5. Education

The use of computer hardware and software for studying and also to practice to learn and teach.

6. Communication

The communication sector is heavily reliant on technology. The companies interact with their clients through a variety of communication channels, including text messages, phone calls, and emails.

7. Entertainment

Computers and other technological devices are widely used in the entertainment industry to create special effects in films, watch films, edit films, compose and record music and develop animated cartoons and games etc.

8. In Our Daily Life

Science and technology have simplified our day to day life. They have made our sleeping, cooking, working and communicating easier and faster.

National Policy on Science and Technology and Innovation

Scientific Policy Resolution 1958

The main objective is to nurture, promote and sustain science and scientific research. This policy aims to bring the benefits of acquiring and applying scientific knowledge to the people. This policy encourages research in all scientific fields. This plan emphasizes on developing infrastructure for scientific research and making them available properly.

Technology Policy Statement 1983

This plan is part of the government's policy of achieving technological self-sufficiency and efficiency. The main objectives of this policy are to coordinate socio-economic projects and implement the National Innovation System. According to the Technology Policy Statement, the government distributes materials for the implementation of this policy and sends detailed instructions to various ministries and agencies in this regard.

Science and Technology Policy 2003

The main objectives are to bring investment and innovation and implement the use of science and technology in the country. The Science and Technology Policy 2003 was a policy prepared in consideration of the changes in the scientific research sector in line with the changes in the economic sector during the liberalization phase of 1990. It was decided to invest heavily in the research and development sector with the aim of increasing the investment in GDP to 2%.

Science and Technology Innovation Policy 2013

The science policy was launched with the aim of speeding up and stabilizing the welfare activities of the people as science and technology started accelerating national development. To promote the innovation ecosystem led by science and technology in the country, and to link science, technology and innovation with socio-economic priorities.

Science and Technology Innovation Policy 2020

Aims to bring about profound changes by promoting research at the individual and official levels of short-term and long-term projects. This policy helps in identifying the limitations and strengths of the Indian science and technology sector, making the Indian science and technology sector more efficient and providing its benefits in the socio-economic field.

Main Objectives

• To foster a scientific mindset among all sections of society and increase employment opportunities through the use of science and technology.

• To enhance India's scientific performance by providing world-class infrastructure and make India one of the top five scientific powers in the world.

• To seek effective implementation of research results in the socio-commercial sector by including private participation and new technologies in the field of scientific and technological research.

Science and Technology Institutes and Organisations in India

India is among the top countries globally in the field of scientific research. Below are a list of institutes and organisations in india for the progression and development in the field of scientific education and scientific research & development.

National Academies related to Science and Technology

■ Indian Academy of Sciences (IASc), Bengaluru

The Indian Academy of Sciences was established in 1934. C.V. Raman was the founder of the Indian Academy of Sciences. The headquarters of the Indian Academy of Sciences is in Bangalore. C.V. Raman was elected as the first President of the Indian Academy of Sciences. The second President was Professor T.S. Sadashivan and the third President was Professor M.G.K. Menon. In honour of C.V. Raman, the Government of India established the Raman Chair in 1972. The Council invites eminent scientists from within and outside India to be its chairpersons. Project lifescape is a joint initiative of the Indian Academy of Sciences and the Centre for Ecological Science to provide education on biodiversity.

■ Indian National Academy of Engineering (INAE), Gurgaon

The Indian National Academy of Engineering (INAE) was established in 1987. It comprises of India's most distinguished engineers, engineer-scientists and technologists. The Academy is an autonomous institution supported partly by the Department of Science and Technology. The headquarters of the Indian National Academy of Engineering is in Gurgaon.

■ Indian National Science Academy (INSA), New Delhi

The Indian National Science Academy was established in January 1935. The headquarters of the Indian National Science Academy is in New Delhi. The original name of the Indian National Science Academy was the National Institute of Sciences of India. It was renamed the Indian National Science Academy in 1970.

■ National Academy of Agricultural Sciences (NAAS), New Delhi

The National Academy of Agricultural Sciences (NAAS) was established in 1990. The headquarters of the National Academy of Agricultural Sciences is in New Delhi. The main objective of the National Academy of Agricultural Sciences is to promote environmentally sustainable agriculture.

■ National Academy of Biological Sciences (NABS), Chennai

The National Academy of Biological Sciences was established on 31 December 2004. Dr. S. Kannaiyan is the founder president of the National Academy of Biological Sciences. The headquarters of the National Academy of Biological Sciences is in Chennai.

■ National Academy of Medical Sciences (NAMS), New Delhi

The National Academy of Medical Sciences was established on 21 April 1961. The headquarters of the National Academy of Medical Sciences is in New Delhi. The National Academy of Medical Sciences functions under the Union Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. The National Academy of Medical Sciences was inaugurated by Jawaharlal Nehru.

■ National Academy of Veterinary Sciences (NAVS), New Delhi

The National Academy of Veterinary Sciences (NAVS) was established in 1993. Its objective is in the future directions of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry during the 21st Century. The academy is jointly sponsored by the Veterinary Council of India. The headquarters of the National Academy of Veterinary Sciences is in New Delhi. 

■ National Environmental Science Academy (NESA), New Delhi

The National Environmental Science Academy was registered in Bihar in 1988 under the provisions of the Societies Act, 1860. The headquarters of the National Environmental Science Academy is in New Delhi. The main objective of the institution is to promote environmental science.

■ The National Academy of Sciences, India (NASI), Prayagraj

The National Academy of Sciences is the first science academy in India. The National Academy of Sciences was established in 1930. The founder of The National Academy of Sciences is Meghnath Saha. The headquarters of The National Academy of Sciences is in Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh. The initial name of The National Academy of Sciences was The Academy of Sciences of United Provinces of Agra and Oudh.

Other Science and Technology Research Institutes and Organisations

■ Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR)

The CSIR was established in 1942. Its headquarters are in New Delhi. Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar is the founder director. CSIR is an Indian institution known for the development of scientific research. CSIR works under the Ministry of Science and Technology. The Prime Minister is the Chairman of CSIR.

■ Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO)

India's indigenous weapons development and production programs are implemented by DRDO (Defence Research Development Organisation). It came into existence in 1958. Its objective is to research and develop equipment required for India's defense sector. It is headed by the Scientific Advisor to the Minister of Defense. DRDO's headquarters are located in New Delhi.

■ Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Biotechnology (RGCB)

Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Biotechnology was established in 1990. RGCB is headquartered in Thiruvananthapuram. RGCB started its operations under the name of Centre for Development of Education, Science and Technology (CDEST). RGCB is the first institution in the country to be named after Rajiv Gandhi. The Committee for Science and Technology and Environment (STEC) under the Government of Kerala was the initial controller of RGCB's activities. Prime Minister Narasimha Rao laid the foundation stone of the new headquarters building of RGCB on 18 November 1995. In 2002, Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam dedicated the institution to the nation. In 2007, the institution was taken over by the Central Government.

■ Indian Institute of Science (IISc)

The headquarters of the Indian Institute of Science is in Bengaluru. The Indian Institute of Science was established in 1909. Jamshedji Tata and Krishna Raja Wadiyar IV were the founders of the Indian Institute of Science. The first name of IISc was Tata Research Institute. Morris Travers (British Chemist) was the first director of IISc. The motto of IISc is Discover and Innovate, Transform and Transcend, Serve and Lead.

■ Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)

ICAR was formed on 16 July 1929. ICAR functions under the Ministry of Agriculture. The Union Minister of Agriculture is the President of ICAR. ICAR was known as Imperial Council of Agricultural Research at the time of its formation. Indian Journal of Agricultural Research and Indian Journal of Animal Research are the publications published by ICAR.

■ Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR)

The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) is one of the oldest medical research institutions in the world. The headquarters of ICMR is in New Delhi. ICMR was established in 1911 as the Indian Research Fund Association. It was renamed as the Indian Council of Medical Research in 1949.

■ Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR)

The Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) was established in 1945. Homi.J.Bhabha is the founder of Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR). The main campus of Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) is located in Mumbai.

■ Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences & Technology (SCTIMST)

Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences & Technology (SCTIMST) was established in 1976. Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences & Technology (SCTIMST) was inaugurated by P.N. Haskar (the then Chairman of the Planning Commission). Its headquarters is in Thiruvananthapuram. Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences & Technology functions under the Central Department of Science and Technology.

■ Technology Information Forecasting and Assessment Council (TIFAC)

The Technology Information Forecasting and Assessment Council (TIFAC) was established in 1988. TIFAC is headquartered in New Delhi. TIFAC is established to assess the technology trajectories, look ahead in technology domain and support innovation by networked actions in select areas of national importance.

■ Vigyan Prasar

Vigyan Prasar was established in 1989. Vigyan Prasar is headquartered in New Delhi. The name of the science clubs established by Vigyan Prasar is VIPNET. Dream 2047 is the magazine published by Vigyan Prasar.

■ Survey of India

The Survey of India was established in 1767. It is the oldest scientific department in India. The main objectives of the Survey of India are to provide reliable information for the purpose of national security, sustainable national development and new information markets.

■ Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC)

Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) was established on 3 January 1954. The initial name of BARC was Atomic Energy Establishment Trombay (AEET). BARC is headquartered in Trombay (Maharashtra). Homi.J.Bhabha is the founder of BARC. BARC is an institution that came into existence with the idea of ​​'How to effectively utilize nuclear energy for the betterment of the country'.

■ Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR)

The Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR) is one of the major nuclear research centres in India. It is located at Kalpakkam in Tamil Nadu. It is the second largest institution of the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) after Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC). It was established in 1971 as a dedicated centre dedicated to research in fast reactor science and technology as a result of the vision of Vikram Sarabhai. Originally, it was called Reactor Research Centre (RRC). In December 1985, the then Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi renamed it as Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR).

■ Technology Development Board (TDB)

The Technology Development Board (TDB) is a statutory body constituted by the Indian Government according to the Technology Development Board Act, 1995. The Technology Development Board provides financial support to industrial concerns and other agencies for the development and commercial application of indigenous technology. They also provides assistance for adapting imported technology to wider domestic applications.

■ The Science & Engineering Research Board (SERB)

The Science and Engineering Research Board is a statutory body constituted by the Indian Government according to an act of the Parliament of India in 2009 (SERB ACT, 2008). It is working under the Department of Science and Technology. The SERB was succeeded by Anusandhan National Research Foundation in the year 2024.

■ Raja Ramanna Centre for Advanced Technology (RRCAT)

Indore (Madhya Pradesh) is the headquarters of Raja Ramanna Centre for Advanced Technology (RRCAT). The foundation stone of RRCAT was laid by Giani Zail Singh in 1984. Raja Ramanna Centre for Advanced Technology is an institution set up to conduct research related to lasers, particle accelerators and related technologies.

Medical Science

Medical Treatment Systems in India

The different methods and practices used to diagnose, treat, and manage diseases are all included in medical treatment systems. Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, Yoga, Naturopathy, and Homeopathy are the various indigenous medicine treatment systems practiced in India.

Ayurveda

Ayurveda is the oldest and one of the most widely used medical system in india. Like many other medical systems, Ayurveda also pioneered scientific surgery. Sushruta, an Ayurvedic scholar who lived in India about 2600 years ago, was the first to perform scientific surgery. He treated and cured body parts including the eyes through scientific surgery. It is estimated that 121 different types of surgical instruments were used by Ayurvedic scholars in India during Sushruta's time. Ayurveda considers the god Dhanvantari to be the father of surgery. Ayurveda describes Sushruta as the 'father of plastic surgery'. The book 'Sushruta Samhita' written by him is one of the basic texts of Ayurveda. While Atreya is considered a foundational figure in the development of Ayurveda, he is not generally referred to as father of Ayurveda, a title more commonly attributed to Charaka. The veda related to Ayurveda is Atharvaveda.

Homoeopathy 

The birth of Homoeopathy was a major milestone in medicine in the early 19th century. The basis of this treatment method is the studies of the German doctor Samuel Hahnemann. He started Homoeopathy by publishing his studies in 1811. Samuel Hahnemann discovered medicines by experimenting on his own body. In 1812, when Typhoid broke out in Paris, Hahnemann's medicine was found to be effective. Thus, Homoeopathy began to gain great popularity. Today, this treatment method is available all over the world. About 40 percent of Homoeopathy medicines are made from plants. Samuel Hahnemann is considered as the father of Homoeopathy.

Siddha Medicine

Siddha medicine is an ancient traditional healing system originating in South India. It is regarded as one of India's oldest medical systems and emphasizes a comprehensive approach to health and wellbeing that takes into account social, psychological, spiritual, and physical factors. Agasthiyar is referred to as father of Siddha Medicine.

Allopathy

Literally, the use of drugs or other means to induce a reaction in the body that will counter act and therefore relieve - the symptoms of a disease. The term is used by practitioners of homeopathy to describe the orthodox system of medicine. They are also called as english medicines. Common allopathic treatments include antibiotics, vaccinations, surgery and chemotherapy. Hippocrates is considered as the father of Allopathy or Modern Medicine.

Yoga

Yoga is a term that has two meanings. It is both (1) a school of thought in the Hindu religion and (2) a system of mental and physical exercise developed by that school. Followers of the yoga school, who are called yogis or yogins, use yoga exercise to achieve their goal of isolation of the soul from the body and mind. The word yoga means discipline in Sanskrit, the classical language of india. According to the yoga school, every human being consists of Prakriti and Purusha. Prakriti includes a person's body, mind and ego. Purusha is pure, empty consciousness - the soul.

Medicines and Drugs

Medicines are small molecular weight chemicals. They are used for diagnosis, prevention and treatment of diseases. Medicines used as drugs can be classified in four ways.

(i) Based on pharmacological properties - This is a classification that is useful for doctors to prescribe medicines for a specific type of disease.

Example - Analgesics, Antiseptics

(ii) Based on the action of medicines - Classification based on the action of a medicine on a specific biochemical process.

Example - Antihistamine medicines are used to block the action of a compound called histamine that causes inflammation in the body.

(iii) Based on chemical structure - Medicines with common structural features will perform similar pharmacological actions.

(iv) Based on molecular targets - The most useful classification for pharmacologists

Therapeutic actions of different classes of drugs

1. Antacids

Overproduction of stomach acid causes ulcers. Antacids are medicines used to reduce high stomach acidity. Example - Ranitidine, Cimetidine

2. Antihistamine

It is a drug used to relieve the symptoms of hay fever and other allergies. It counteracts some of the effects of histamine a substance found in the body of a person. Excess amount of histamine may cause various disorders. Antihistamines have side effects, including drowsiness. Therefore it is dangerous to people who operate heavy machinery or drive. Example - Brompheniramine, Terfenadine

3. Neuroactive Drugs

i. Tranquilizers - Tranquilizer is a drug that calms a person by acting on the nervous system. Tranquilizers belong to a group of drugs called antianxiety and hypnotic drugs. Such drugs were formerly referred to as depressants. They do not cause depression, but will reduce a person's nervous activity. There are two types of tranquilizers - antipsychotic drugs and antianxiety drugs. Antipsychotic drugs are used to treat patients with psychoses. Antianxiety drugs are used to treat various emotional problems, particularly anxiety. Example - Iproniazid, Phenelzine, Meprobamate

ii. Analgesics - A class of drugs that relieve pain. Narcotic Analgesics such as morphine are powerful pain killers that act directly on the brain. Some anesthetics also have analgesic properties. Aspirin and paracetamol are examples of antipyretic analgesics which also reduce fever. These drugs are not addictive but are less potent than narcotics.

4. Antimicrobials 

Antimicrobials are drugs that can kill or inhibit the growth of microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi. Example - Antibiotic, Antiseptic, Disinfectant

i. Antibiotic - Antibiotics are used to treat infections in humans and animals. They can inhibit the growth of microorganisms at low concentrations or kill them by interfering with their metabolism. There are two types of antibiotics - Bactericidal (cidal effect) and Bacteriostatic (static effect).

1. Bactericidal - those that kill microorganisms. Example - Penicillin, Aminoglycosides, Ofloxacin

2. Bacteriostatic - resists microorganisms. Example - Erythromycin, Tetracycline, Chloramphenicol

ii. Antiseptic - It is a substance that destroys or stops the growth of germs on living tissue. They are applied to skin to help prevent infection. Doctors use special antiseptic to scrub their hands and to wash the patients skin before surgery. They also spray serious wounds with antiseptics in order to keep them from becoming infected. Example - Dettol, Furacin, Soframycin

iii. Disinfectant - Disinfectants are used on floors, drainage systems, and equipment. The same substance can be used as both antiseptics and disinfectants by varying its concentration. Example - Phenol, Vesphene, Viscodyne

Various Types of Medicines

A drug or medicine is a chemical substance or preparation taken to treat or prevent disease. Drugs can be given to the body in the form of injections, tablets, creams, sprays, or drops. Most drugs are made from natural products. The different types of drugs are listed below.

1. Antivenom

Antivenom is a medication taken/used to reduce the potency of venom from living organisms. It is mainly used to reduce the potency of snake venom.

2. Antacid

Antacids are medicines that are taken to reduce acidity. HCl is the acid in the human digestive system. Acidity is a condition in which the amount of HCl acid in the stomach is increased. The ingredients in antacids are Sodium Bicarbonate, Calcium Carbonate, Aluminum Hydroxide, and Magnesium Hydroxide.

3. Analgesics

Analgesics are drugs that reduce or eliminate pain without causing drowsiness, mental confusion, incoordination, paralysis, or any other neurological disturbances. They are known as painkillers. The part of the brain where analgesics act is the thalamus. The neurotransmitter where analgesics act is the GABA. Analgesics are divided into Non Narcotic Analgesics and Narcotic Analgesics. Aspirin and Paracetamol are examples of Non Narcotic Analgesics and Morphine is example of Narcotic Analgesics.

4. Antipyretics

Antipyretics are medicines taken to reduce fever. They help reduce body temperature. For example - Paracetamol.

5. Antibiotics

Drugs used to prevent growth of bacteria or other germs. In 1928, Alexander Fleming discovered the first effective antibiotic 'penicillin' from a fungus called Penicillium Notatum. Examples of Antibiotics are Penicillin, Ampicillin, Tetracycline and Amoxicillin.

6. Antiseptic

Antiseptics are drugs used to kill germs outside the body. The first antiseptic discovered in the world was Phenol.

7. Tranquilizer

Tranquilizers are drugs used to treat depression and anxiety. Tranquilizers are now used not only in psychiatric treatment but also to calm patients after certain surgeries.

8. Contraceptives

Birth control drugs are mainly mixtures of synthetic estrogens and progesterone or their derivatives. An example of a synthetic progesterone derivative that is most commonly used as an anti-fertility drug is Norethindrone. The estrogen derivative used in combination with a progesterone derivative is Ethynyl. 

9. Anthelmintics

Anthelmintics are medicines used to treat infections caused by a broad range of parasites in agriculture, aquaculture, and in some cases for human infections. For example - Albendazole

10. Antihistamine

Antihistamines are drugs used to relieve symptoms of asthma, hay fever and other allergies. Histamine is the cause of common cold and pollen allergies. Excess amount of histamine may cause various disorders. Antihistamines counteract some of the effects of histamine. Example for Antihistamine is Terfenadine.

11. Sedative

Sedative is a drug that decreases the activity of the central nervous system. Sedatives are prescribed mainly to ease anxiety or to produce sleep. Their effect depends on the dosage. When taken in small amounts, the drugs calm a person. Slightly larger doses cause sleep. When used to produce sleep, the drugs are generally called hypnotics. barbiturates and bromides are examples of Sedatives.

12. Anesthetics

Drugs that block sensory nerves and make a patient fully unconscious to prevent him from feeling pain.

13. Hormones

Drugs used to combat hormone deficiency that cause diseases.

14. Narcotics

Drugs that deaden the nervous system and prevent a person from feeling pain.

15. Vaccines

Drugs that are injected to help the body to develop resistance to disease or immunization of the body.

Vaccines

Drugs that are injected to help the body to develop resistance to disease or immunization of the body is called as Vaccine. Immunization is the process of developing immunity against a disease before it occurs. Vaccination is the process of developing immunity by injecting on live or dead cells, its inactivated toxins, or its cell parts of a pathogen before the disease occurs.

Various Vaccines

1. Smallpox Vaccine

Small pox was the disease that led to the discovery of first antiviral vaccine. In 1796, English physician Edward Jenner discovered a vaccine that used active cow-pox to effectively immunize against smallpox. Jenner successfully inoculated an eight year old boy. Jenner named this inoculation 'vaccination' from the latin word 'vaccinia', meaning cow pox. Jenner's method was much safer than earlier vaccines such as Pylarini's. Small Pox is the only disease totally eradicated in 1980 throghout the world by vaccination.

2. B.C.G Vaccine

B.C.G (Bacillus Calmette Guerin) Vaccine is administered to prevent Tuberculosis. The vaccine was developed in 1921 by the french researchers Albert Calmette and Camille Guerin. The name BCG stands for Bacillus Calmette Guerine. BCG is also used experimentally in the treatment of certain cancers. It is made from specially bred and weakened strains of tuberculosis bacteria. Injections of BCG cause the body to build up disease-fighting antibodies that protect against tuberculosis. It is also ineffective among certain populations.

3. D.P.T Vaccine

D.P.T Vaccine (Triple Antigen) is used to prevent diphtheria, pertusis or whooping cough and tetanus. In 1892, Baron Shibasabura Kitasato (Japan), Emil Adolf Von Behring (Germany) and Paul Ehrlich (Germany) produced the diphtheria antitoxin, using antibodies that were produced by animals previously inoculated with it. They found that the inoculation not only prevented the disease but also help to cure it in animal already infected. The 1901 Nobel Prize in medicine and physiology was awarded to Von Behring for this breakthrough and Ehrlich was given the award in 1908 for his work on immunity.

4. M.M.R Vaccine

Measles, Mumps, and Rubella (MMR) Vaccination is another Triple Vaccine. It is used to prevent measles, mumps and rubella. Rubella is also called as German Measles.

5. Rabies Vaccine

Rabies can be prevented by injections discovered by Louis Pasteur. Injections are known as ARV (Anti-Rabies Venom). French chemist Louis Pasteur developed a rabies vaccine as an immunization against the fatal disease and used it for the first time on a human in 1885. A nine year old french boy, had been bitten 14 times by a rabid dog. After Pasteur injected him several times with the pulverized spinal cord of a rabbit that had died of rabies, the boy survived.

6. Rota Vaccine

Rota Vaccine is a mandatory vaccine for children to prevent diarrhea.

7. Polio Vaccine

In 1952 an American microbiologist, Jonas Edward Salk, prepared the first vaccine against poliomyelitis. After trying it with children who had already survived polio and who would therefore be resistant, he inoculated children without a history of the disease. In 1954 the vaccine was produced in large quantities and by 1955, it was being widely used. Salk's vaccine used a dead virus as the immunization agent. In 1957, Albert Sabin, a polish-born American developed, a vaccine that used a live virus and was administered orally. Albert Sabin discovered the Oral Polio Vaccine.

8. HB (Hameophilus Influenzae Type B)

Hib is a vaccine given to children to prevent influenza.

9. Pentavalent Vaccine

It is used to prevent five bacterial diseases which includes Diphtheria, Petrusis, Whooping cough, Tetanus, Hepatitis B and Haemophilus Influenzae B.

10. Corona Vaccine

The corona vaccines are Pfizer vaccine, Covaxin, and Covishield. The Pfizer vaccine is the first vaccine to be approved for emergency use by the WHO. Covaxin is a vaccine developed by Bharat Biotech in collaboration with the Indian Councils of Medical Research. Covishield is a vaccine developed by Oxford University in collaboration with the Serum Institute of India.

11. Cholera Vaccine

Prevention of cholera requires adequate sanitation facilities. A vaccine against illness has been developed by Louis Pasteur in 1880.

12. TB Vaccine

Tuberculosis is an infectious disease that mainly affects the lungs but can also involve other organs. TB Vaccine was discovered by Leon Calmette and Camille Guerin in 1992.

13. Measles Vaccine

Rubeola is the medical name of the disease measles. Measles Vaccine was discovered by John.F.Enders in 1960.

14. Chickenpox Vaccine

Children should be vaccinated after they reach 12 months of age.

Diagnostic Instruments used in Medical Science

1. Electrocardiograph (ECG)

Electrocardiograph (ECG) is an instrument used to diagnose heart disorders. It detects the changes in electrical potential generated by contraction of heart muscles. Each time the heart beats, it produces electrical currents. These currents are responsible for the rate and pattern of contraction of the heart. An electrocardiograph picks up these currents and records them on paper. The electrocardiograph may be connected to a printer, which prints the record. This record is called an electrocardiogram, often abbreviated to ECG. The electrocardiograph may also be conneted to an oscilloscope, an instrument that displays the currents on a TV-type screen. An electrocardiograph contains amplifying and recording equipment. Wires run from the machine to electrodes-strips of metal that conduct electricity.

2. Electroencephalograph (EEG)

Electroencephalograph is an instrument used to measure and record the electrical voltages produced by neurons in the brain. A recording of this electrical activity is called an Electroencephalograph. EEG is used to diagnose epilepsy, encephalities, dimentia and brain tumour. Doctors and neuroscientists use the Electroencephalograph to study normal brain activity, as well as abnormal brain states that are caused by injury, tumour, infection or even death. To record an Electroencephalograph, medical personnel attach electrodes from the Electroencephalograph to the patient's scalp. Hans Berger, a German psychiatrist invented the first Electroencephalograph in 1929 to measure the rhythmical electrical activity of the human brain.

3. Electromyography (EMG)

The process of measuring and recording a muscle's action potential is called electromyography. An electromyography equipment is used to take an EMG, and the resulting record is called an electromyogram. An EMG can be used to analyze the electrical activity of muscle cells both during exercise and during rest. The EMG potentials that are measured fall between 50 µ and 30 millivolts. There are primarily two types of EMG measurements. Surface electrodes are used in the first procedure, and needle electrodes are used in the second. While needle electrodes are used to observe the electrical activity of a limited number of fibers, surface EMG electrodes are used to monitor the electrical activity of muscles in general.

4. Auto Analyser

These are computerised instruments used for biochemical identification of various body fluids such as urea, cholesterol, glucose, protein.

5. Otoscope

It is an instrument used for examining the outer ear and ear drum.

Imaging Instruments used in Medical Science

1. X-Ray

X-rays are one of the most useful forms of energy. Their main use have been in the field of medicine. X-rays find wide use in medicine because they can pass through flesh and produce photographic images of what lies beneath the skin. X-rays also have many uses in science. Scientists now know that X-rays are one of several forms of electromagnetic radiation. The German physicist Wilhelm C.Roentgen discovered X-Rays in 1895.

2. Tomography

Also known as sectional radiography, tomography was invented and patented in France in 1934 by the German inventor Gustave Grossmann. British radiologist Edward Wing Twining adopted the word tomography to describe the technology that reveals details within pre-determined planes of the body in the form of radiographs that blur structures in other planes. 

3. Computerized Tomographic Scanning (CT Scanning)

It is an x-ray system used to produce images of various parts of the body, such as the head, chest and abdomen. Doctors use CT images to help diagnose and treat diseases. The technique is also called computer tomography or computerized axial tomography. To produce a CT image, the patient lies on a table that passes through a circular scanning machine called a gantry. The table is positioned so that the organ to be scanned lies in the centre of the gantry.

4. CAT Scanning (Computerized Axial Tomography)

It helps to show condition of soft tissues of body through use of X-Ray. Widely used to image brain tumour. Godfrey Newbold Hounsfield (England) and Allan MacLeod Cormack (South Africa) shared the 1979 Nobel Prize for medicine and physiology for their invention and development of computerized axial tomography (CAT Scan).

5. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

MRI was originally discovered in 1946 independently by Felix Bloch and Purcell. MRI is a diagnostic technique that provide high quality cross sectioned or three dimensional image of the organ without using X-ray or radiation. It uses magnetic field and radio waves. Magnetic Resonance Imaging is a technique used in medicine for producing images of tissues inside the body. Doctors use these images to diagnose some diseases, disorders and injuries. MRI is an important diagnostic tool because it enables doctors to identify abnormal tissue without opening the body through surgery. MRI does not expose the patient to radiation, unlike tests that use x-rays. Also MRI lets doctors see through bones and organs. MRI is safe for most people. But MRI uses a powerful magnet and so cannot be used on people with metal implants, such as pacemakers or artificial joints. An MRI unit consists mainly of a large cylindrical magnet, devices for transmitting and receiving radio waves and a computer. During the examination, the patient lies insides the magnet and a magnetic field is applied to the patient's body.

6. Ultra Sound Scanning (Echography or Sonography)

It is used to reveal the structural anatomy or stone in urinary tract or kidney, widely used in obstetrics.

7. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (NMR)

NMR is used for detection of chemicals such as phosphorus and calcium. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance was independently discovered in 1946 by Swiss-born American physicists Felix Bloch and Edward Purcell, who shared the Nobel Prize for physics in 1952 for their work. The first medical use of NMR was introduced by Erich Odeblad in Sweden in the 1950's. Paul Lauterbur (England) obtained the first NMR image of body tissues in 1973. By 1977, NMR Images were being made of human tissue and soon thereafter of the brain.

8. Endoscope

Instrument used for internal examination by direct vision through a lighted tubes fitted with a system of lens. It is a medical instrument used to examine the interior of a hollow organ or a cavity of the body. Unlike most other medical imaging devices, endoscopes are inserted directly into the organ or cavity being examined. There are several types of endoscopes. Most endoscopes consist of a flexible or rigid hollow tube with a lens at one end. Arnaud designed the first endoscopic lamp used to illuminate the interior of orifices in humans around 1819. He built his instrument with a biconvex lens.

9. Positron Emission Tomography Scan (PET Scan)

Positron Emission Tomography is a technique used to produce images of the chemical activity of the brain and other body tissues. PET enables scientists to observe chemical changes in specific regions of a person's brain while the person performs various tasks, such as listening, thinking or moving an arm or leg. Scientists use PET to compare the brain processes of healthy people and people with diseases of the brain. Research is being done to see if it is possible to use these comparisons to identify abnormalities that underlie various brain disorders. These disorders include such mental illnesses as manic depression and schizophrenia, as well as such conditions as Alzhelmer's disease, cerebral palsy, epilepsy and stroke. PET also helps doctors diagnose certain other disorders, including heart disease and cancer.

Therapeutic Instruments used in Medical Science

1. Pacemaker

It supplies electrical impulses to heart to maintain heartbeat as regular rate. Clarence Walton Lillehei, an American physician built the first pacemaker in 1957. Lillehei's pacemaker was an electric unit that could be inserted in the patient's chest where it would give off an electrical jolt in order to regulate the pace of the heart beat. Pacemaker is a device which uses electrical impulses delivered by electrodes to maintain and regulate the beating of heart-so the primary function of pacemaker is to maintain adequate heart rate. When a condition called ‘heart block’ occurs, the electro conduction system of heart is interrupted and heart’s ability to pump blood is weakened. In such cases physicians normally use pacemakers to stimulate the heart. Pacemaker is an electrical generator that delivers the wanted pulse at an approximate time. Modern pacemakers are externally programmable and allow the cardiologist to select optimum pacing modes for individual patients.

2. Medical Lasers

Lasers are high energy particles of light amplified by stimulated emission of radiation. Lasers are now commonly used in many kind of surgical operations, opthalmology and Oncology.

3. Oxygenator (Heart Lung Machine)

The first heart-lung machine was invented in 1935 by John H.Gibbon, Jr (US) and his wife Mary Gibbon (US). They successfully shut off a cat's heart and lungs and then kept it alive with their machine. The first time they tried it on a human was in 1953. In 1953, the first open heart surgery was performed by using heart lung machine. A simpler more dependable machine was built in 1955 by American physicians Clarence Walton Lillehei and Richard A.DeWall. Their machine was a bubble-oxygenator that oxygenated the blood and removed the carbon dioxide.

4. Blood Dialyser (Artificial Kidney)

The apparatus is elaborate and bulky and it is used for sustaining kidney function when kidney fails. John Jacob Abel, an American biochemist, produced the first useful artificial kidney for laboratory work in 1912. Dutch-born Williem J.Kolff (US) began to work on building an artificial kidney that could be used on humans in 1938. Finally, in 1945, he designed a machine that worked to keep patients alive by filtering out blood urea, a process known as dialysis. Long-term dialysis became possible in 1960 when Belding Scribner (US) developed a Teflon and Silastic shunt that could be left in a patient's wrist over a period of years. This shunt served to connect the artificial kidney machine to the patient.

5. Angioplasty

It is used to open blocked coronory artery vessel through ballooning. It is a technique of opening arteries that have become blocked by deposits of cholesterol, calcium or any other substances. Angioplasty is especially important for patients whose coronary arteries have become critically narrowed. For many such patients this provides an alternative to surgery. In coronary angioplasty, a long tube (catheter) with a balloon attached to it is inserted into the blocked artery. After the long tube enters the narrowed part of the vessel, the balloon is inflated which crushes the deposits against the artery wall.

6. Angiography

An X-ray opaque dye is injected into arteries, and series of X-ray films are taken. Diagnosis of heart wall, valves, ventricles, coronary arteries etc. It is a technique that makes blood vessels visible using X-rays. The X-ray picture that is produced is called an angiogram. It is performed on arteries or veins connected with such structures as the brain, heart, kidneys or legs. Doctors use angiography to determine whether a narrowing of a blood vessel is being caused by a clot or by deposits of such substances as calcium and cholesterol.

Medical Treatment Techniques

1. Appendectomy

Appendicitis is the inflammation of the appendix. Appendicitis is most common in childhood and adolescence. It usually starts with vague pain around the navel that becomes localized in the right lower region of the abdomen. Diarrhoea may also occur. Surgical removal to prevent rupture of the appendix and subsequent peritonitis is usually required. Appendectomy is the surgical removal of inflammed appendix.

2. Cryosurgery

It is a surgical technique of destroying a tissue by extreme cooling. American physician Irving S. Cooper developed the technique of cryosurgery for the purpose of freezing and destroying damaged brain tissue. Cooper tried it on a human for the first time in 1961 to relieve symptoms of Parkinson's disease. The technique also proved to be useful for such purposes as removing cataracts and correcting detached retinas.

3. Cystoscopy

The technique of examining the inside of the urinary bladder using an optical instrument called Cystoscope.

4. Diathermy

Diathermy is a technique of generating heat in a tissue by means of a high frequency electric current. It is a method of treating muscle and joint disorders and other diseases by creating heat energy in tissues beneath the skin. Diathermy is used chiefly to relieve such conditions as muscle aches, muscle strain and pain and inflammation in the joints. In diathermy, an electric current is passed through the body, generating an electromagnetic field. The tissues of the body have different resistances to the flow of electric current. This resistance causes a temperature rise in the tissues.

5. Enterostomy

Enterostomy is a surgical technique of making an artificial opening in the intestines.

6. Gastrectomy

Gastrectomy is the surgical removal of the stomach or part of it in the treatment of tumours or ulcers in stomach.

7. Hypothermia

Hypothermia is a technique to lower body temperature to reduce the body's requirement of oxygen during extended surgery of the brain or heart.

8. Hysterectomy

Hysterectomy is the surgical removal of a women's uterus. This surgery also includes the removal of the fallopian tubes. If only the uterus and fallopian tubes are taken out, the operation is called a subtotal hysterectomy. A total hysterectomy includes the additional removal of the cervix, the so-called neck of the womb. In some cases, the surgeon also removes one or both ovaries.

9. Laparoscopy

Laparoscopy is the examination of the abdominal cavity using an optical instrument called laparoscope. It is a surgical technique used to examine organs and to find out defect and treat certain diseases within the abdomen. Doctors use an instrument called a laparoscope to perform this technique. The laparoscope is a channel for surgical instruments. It is inserted into the abdomen through a small opening made in the abdominal wall. The doctor can observe the liver, gall bladder, spleen. Laparoscopy allows doctors to detect cirrhosis or cancer of the liver and disorders of other abdominal organs and the lining of the abdominal cavity. Surgeons can treat certain diseases by passing special instruments through the laparoscope and moving them in the abdomen.

10. Nephrectomy

Nephrectomy is the surgical removal of diseased or damaged kidney.

11. Oophorectomy

Oophorectomy is the surgical removal of a diseased ovary.

12. Venipuncture

Venipuncture is the puncturing of a vein to inject a drug, blood or other fluids into the vein. 

Basics of Everyday Science

Cleansing Agents - Soaps and Detergents

Soaps and Detergents are the commonly used Cleansing Agents. Something that cleans dirty surfaces is called a detergent. One kind of detergent is soap. However, the term "detergent" typically only refers to synthetic detergents, which differ chemically from soap. Soap and detergent products are produced in the form of bars, flakes, granules, liquids and tablets. People use soap to wash their bodies. They shampoo their hair with soaps and detergents. Daily bathing with soap prevents dirt and natural body oils from clogging the pores of the skin.

Types of Cleansing Agents

1. Soaps 

With the discovery of methods to produce potassium hydroxide in the 18th century and sodium hydroxide in the 19th century, soap making became a big industry. Sodium hydroxide is utilised in washing soap and potassium hydroxide in toilet soap. Soap is made by reacting coconut oil or other oils or fats with alkalis like sodium hydroxide. Saponification is the process of making soaps. Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of long-chain fatty acids (e.g. oleic, stearic, palmitic). Potassium hydroxide is used to make soft soaps. Clear soaps are made by dissolving soap in ethanol and evaporating the excess solvent. Soap is used to wash clothes because it reduces the surface tension of water. The process of adding NaCl to the solution for the separation of soap from glycerol is called 'Salting out'.

2. Synthetic Detergents

The search for a substance with better cleaning power than soaps led to the development of detergents. The chemical name of detergents are Alkyl Benzene Sulfonates. Synthetic detergents are a mixture of sodium salts of aromatic and aliphatic sulphonic acids. Synthetic detergents are cleaning aids that do not contain soap but have all the properties of soap. They dissolve in hard water and normal water. They are mainly classified into three categories - Anionic, Cationic and Non-ionic or neutral Detergents.

Anionic Detergents - Anionic detergents are mostly used for household purposes. They are also used in toothpastes. In these, the anion part of the molecule is involved in cleaning activities.

Cationic Detergents - Cationic detergents have limited uses due to their high cost and disinfectant properties. They are used in hair conditioners.

Non-ionic or neutral Detergents - Liquid detergents used for washing bowls are examples of these. There are no ions in their structure.

3. Natural Cleansing Agents 

It consists of a chemical called saponin which produce lather when it is shaken with water. Soap nuts, soap pods, turmeric powder, milk, honey, coconut oil, lemon, curd, cucumber etc are examples of naturally obtained cleansing agents.

Polymers

Polymer is a large, long, chainlike molecule formed by the chemical linking of many smaller molecules. The small molecular building units are called monomers. Monomers are joined into chains by a process of repeated linking known as polymerization. A polymer may consist of thousands of monomers. Some polymers occur naturally. Others are synthetic. Many common and useful substances are polymers. For example, starch and wool are naturally occuring polymers. Starch is formed by plants from a simple sugar called glucose and wool is a variety of protein. Other examples of natural polymers are cellulose and silk. Proteins, DNA, Starch and Cellulose are the polymers found in living organisms and they are called Biopolymers. Nylon and polyethylene, a tough plastic material are synthetic polymers. Rayon, Teflon, Orlon, Polyester etc are other examples for man made polymers or synthetic polymers. Rayon is known as artificial silk and is used in carpets, tyre code, surgical dressings, fabrics etc. Teflon is a polymer used to coat the inside of nonstick kitchenware. The monomer of teflon is Tetrofluoroethylene. Rubber, another polymer, occurs naturally and is also made synthetically. The basic nature of Fiber, Plastic and Rubber is Polymer. Fibers are polymers suitable for making strong yarns. Whereas, Plastics are polymers that can be molded into various shapes and Rubber is a polymer that has elastic properties.

Polymerization

Polymerization is a chemical process important in the production of plastics, artificial fibres, synthetic rubber and paints. In this process, many small molecules called monomers combine to build much larger molecules called polymers. The process is known as homopolymerization if only one type of monomer is utilized. Copolymerization is the process of using many types of monomers. The solid plastic known as vinyl, or polyvinyl chloride, is created when the gas vinyl chloride is homopolymerized. The plastic used to wrap food is made by copolymerizing vinyl chloride with vinylidene chloride. Chemists also classify polymerization processes by the chemical reactions that occur.

Polymers and Monomers

1. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) - Vinyl Chloride

2. Polyvinyl Acetate (PVA) - Vinyl Acetate

3. Polythene - Ethene

4. Bakelite - Phenol and Formaldehyde

5. Polystyrene - Styrene

Types of Polymers

There are three types of polymers, namely, natural, semi-synthetic and synthetic polymers.

I. Natural Polymers

Both plants and animals contain them naturally. For instance, starch, cellulose, silk, rubber and wool. In addition, we have biopolymers, which are biodegradable polymers. Proteins, DNA, starch and cellulose are Biopolymers.

1. Starch

Starch is formed by plants from a simple sugar called glucose.

2. Cellulose

Cellulose is a substance that forms a major part of the cell walls of trees, grasses, vegetables and many other plants. Cellulose is a carbohydrate-that is, a substance composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. All fruits and vegetables contain cellulose. Cellulose makes up an important part of many family products. Industries use strong acids and alkalis to modify the properties of cellulose for various purposes. For example, textile manufacturers strengthen cotton fibers by treating with an alkaline solution such as caustic soda.

3. Silk

Silk is a strong, shiny fibre that is used to make cloth. Silk has a natural beauty that few other fibres can equal and is often called the queen of fibres. Silk fibre is made from the cocoons of caterpillars called silkworms. Many other animals, including spiders and lacewings, spin silk threads. But their silk cannot economically be made into cloth. Silk is the strongest of all natural fibres. A thread of silk is stronger than the same size thread of some kinds of steel. Silk is highly elastic. It can be stretched and will still return to its original shape. Silk garments are extremely light in weight and are warmer than cotton, linen or rayon clothing. Dyed silk cloth has a deeper, richer appearence than most other dyed fabrics. Silk can be ironed easily and it resists wrinkling.

4. Wool

Wool is a fibre that comes from the fleece of sheep and some other animals. It is made into durable fabrics used in manufacturing blankets, clothing, rugs and other items. Wool fabrics clean easily and they resist wrinkles and hold their shape well. Wool also absorbs moisture and insulates against cold. All these features make wool popular for coats, sweaters, gloves, socks and other clothing. Wool fibres are nearly cylindrical in shape. Overlapping scales on the surface make the fibres mat and interlock under heat, moisture and pressure. This property of wool fibres is called felting. Felting increases the strength and durability of wool fabrics. It also enables wool to be made into felt.

II. Semi-synthetic Polymers

They undergo additional chemical alteration after being produced from naturally existing polymers. For example, cellulose derivatives like cellulose nitrate and cellulose acetate. Manufacturers produce substances called cellulose derivatives by combining cellulose with certain chemicals. The most widely used cellulose derivate is cellulose acetate. Other derivatives include carboxy methyl cellulose and cellulose nitrate. In the late 1940's, synthetic polymers prepared mainly from petroleum began to replace cellulose in some plastic, fibers and some photographic film. But some experts believe that a petroleum shortage and rising oil prices will probably lead to greater use of cellulose.

III. Synthetic Polymers

These polymers were created by humans. The most popular and extensively utilized synthetic polymer is plastic. It is utilized in many dairy products and industries. Other examples are Polyethylene, Rayon, Teflon, Orlon, Polyester, Polyether, Nylon-66, Nylon-6 etc.

1. Polyethylene

Polyethylene or polythene is the most commonly used plastic. It is a polymer, mainly used for packaging products like plastic bags, geomembranes, plastic films, and containers including jars, bottles, cups etc.

2. Rayon

Rayon is a manufactured fibre produced from wood pulp or cotton linens. It is widely used to make industrial materials and knit and woven textiles for clothing, upholstery, draperies and decorating fabrics.

3. Teflon

Teflon is the trade name for polytetra fluroethylene, which was discovered in 1938 by American chemist Roy.J.Plunkett. Plunkett discovered the material accidently while working to develop a non toxic refrigerant from gaseous tetrafluroethylene. Instead, he came up with a waxy white powder that indicated that the molecules had polymerized or combined with each other. Plunkett went on to develop a method for producing the powder commercially. Teflon was first used to manufacture gaskets and valves needed in the development of the atomic bomb. The first Teflon coated muffin tins and frying pans were sold in 1960. Teflon is now used for artificial corneas, substitute bones for chin, nose, hip and knee joints and other anatomical parts. Non stick kitchenware are coated with teflon and potassium hydrogen tartarate. It is anti-corrosive.

4. Orlon 

Orlon is also known as polyacrylonitrile. It is mainly used in the garment industry. It is a high resistive fibre to sunlight and greenhouse gas. 

5. Polyester

Polyester is the general name for any of a group of widely used synthetic products. Polyesters are strong, tough materials that are manufactured in a variety of colours, shapes and sizes.

6. Polyether

Polyethers are polymers consisting of monomers joined together by ether linkages. A variety of polyethers are manufactured ranging from elastomers to the engineering plastics.

7. Nylon-66

Nylon-66 is a synthetic fibre belonging to polyamide. Nylon-66 is prepared from hexa methylene diamine and adipic acid.

8. Nylon-6

Nylon-6 is a synthetic fibre belonging to polyamide. It exhibits highly tensile strength, better impact resistance and good abrasion resistance.

Plastics

Plastics is invented by Alexander Parkes in 1856. Plastics are synthetic polymers which can be easily moulded or set into a desired shape. They rank among the most practical materials ever made. Plastic goods are used in our homes, workplaces, and educational institutions. Plastics that are as soft as cotton or as rigid as steel have been created by engineers. Engineers can create plastics that are any colour of the rainbow or as clear and colourless as crystal. Plastics can be hard or rubbery, and they can be molded into a vast array of items, such as soft fabrics, squeezable bottles, and vehicle fenders. Products made of plastic, particularly those utilized by industries, may last for many years. Plastics consist of long chains of molecules called polymers. Small molecules in repeating patterns make up these chains. A 'link' is created in the chain of the polymer by each of the smaller molecules. The chains in certain plastics are rigid and arranged like logs in a river. In others, they resemble spaghetti on a plate, tangled and stretchy. The most remarkable feature of plastics is their shapeability, which is a result of many architectures. The Greek word plastikos, which meaning "able to be shaped," is actually where the word "plastics" originates. The word 'plastic' was originally used in a patent for a mold in 1862. The first artificial plastic created is Bakelite. Bakelite is invented by Leo Hendrik Baekeland in 1907. It is made from phenol and formaldehyde. Microns are the unit used to express the thickness of plastics. 1 micron is equal to 0.000001 m.

Chloroform is a liquid that dissolves plastic. Burning plastic releases a variety of toxic gases into the atmosphere, that includes carbon monoxide, dioxins, furans and polychlorinated biphenyls. Dioxins can become a reason for cancer. Disposal of Dioxin is difficult, because it does not readily degrade in soil or water. Melamine formaldehyde Resins, noryl, carbon fibre reinforced plastic, acrylate etc. are examples of commonly used plastics. Melamine Formaldehyde Resins are used for making unbreakable plastic containers. Noryl is a plastic with the properties of metal. Carbon fibre reinforced plastic is a plastic used to make aircraft, nuclear reactors and sports equipment. Acrylate is a plastic used to make artificial teeth and lenses.

Types of Plastics

Thermoplastics and Thermosetting plastics are the two types of Plastics. They are explained as follows.

1. Thermoplastics

Thermoplastics are plastics that soften when heated and harden when cooled. Polythene, Nylon, Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC), polypropylene, polystyrene, acrylic, teflon etc. are examples for Thermoplastics. 

i. Polythene

Polythene, also known as polyethylene or polyethene, is the most commonly used plastic material derived from ethylene monomers. It is a versatile polymer, mainly used for making packets, bags, tubes, electrical insulation and containers including jars, bottles, cups etc. About a third of all synthetic products are polyethylenes. There are three main types of polyethylene: high density polyethylene (HDPE), low density polyethylene (LDPE) and linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE). HDPE is the toughest and most rigid type. It is used to make bottles and jugs. LDPE and LLDPE are relatively soft and flexible. Manufacturers produce them as thin films. LDPE is used to make bread bags and LLDPE is used to make Garbage bags.

ii. Nylon

Nylon is a fibre entirely made from chemicals. It is stronger than silk. Nylon is resistant to grease and dirt. It was used in a multitude of applications, ranging from parachutes to stockings. 

iii. Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC)

Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC) is a thermoplastic, much stronger than polyethylene. It is used for the manufacture of electrical insulators, water proof cloth, plumbing, shoes, hand bags, raincoats, boats, bottles, furnitures etc. Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC) is the polymer of Vinyl Chloride. Dioxin is a toxic gas that results from burning PVC.

iv. Teflon

Teflon is a polymer named Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). Non stick kitchenware are coated with teflon and potassium hydrogen tartarate. It is anti-corrosive.

2. Thermosetting Plastics 

Thermosetting Plastics are plastics that remain soft when heated and permanently harden when cooled. Once hardened, thermosetting plastics cannot be reshaped by heating. Polyester, Bakelite, Epoxy, Phenolic, Melamine, Polyurethane etc. are examples for Thermosetting plastics.

i. Polyester

Polyesters are strong, tough polymer that are made in a variety of colours, shapes and sizes. They are made from chemical substances found mainly in petroleum. Polyesters are manufactured in three basic forms - fibres, films and plastics. Polyester fibres are widely used in carpets, clothing and upholstery. Polyester films are made into magnetic tapes for use in computers and tape recorders. Others serves as insulation for electrical wires or as containers. Thin polyester films provide airtight seals on containers and packages.

ii. Bakelite

About 50 years after the introduction of celluloid, the Beligian born chemist Leo Baekeland discovered in 1909 a new substance while experimenting with formaldehyde. Upon heating it become soft, after which it could be moulded and then hardened; it could also be made in powdered form, set under pressure, and heated to form a hard solid material. Nonconductive and resistant to heat and corrosion. It was named Bakelite, the first synthetic plastic. Many products were made from it, so it can be said to have triggered the start of the plastics industry. It is used to make electrical insulators and building materials. 

iii. Melamine

Melamine is a fire-resistant plastic. Firefighters' uniforms are made from melamine plastic.

iv. Polyurethane

Polyurethane foam is used for thermal insulation, sound proofing and padding. Polyurethanes are polymers in which formation of a urethane group is an important part of the polymerization process.

Rubber

Rubber is one of the most important raw materials used today. It is a naturally available elastic polymer. Ordinary rubber is a thermoplastic substance. Rubber is especially useful for several reasons. It does not easily conduct electricity and retains air and moisture. However, the fact that it is elastic is what matters most to us. A rubber band's elasticity allows it to rapidly return to its original shape after being stretched. A rubber ball bounces because of this same springiness. The rubber heels absorb shock while walking because they have elasticity. We depend so much on rubber that it would be almost impossible to get along without it. This is not the case with most other materials. Rubber dissolves in Benzene.

Types of Rubber

Rubber is broadly classified into three as natural rubber, synthetic rubber and vulcanized rubber. 

1. Natural rubber

Natural rubber comes from the juice of a tree. It is derived from the latex of rubber trees. Polyisoprene, an elastomer is an example for Natural Rubber. Natural Rubber is known for its elasticity, flexibility, and high tensile strength. 

2. Synthetic rubber

Synthetic rubber is made from chemical polymerization and other manufacturing processes. It is a man made polymer produced from petrochemicals. The first synthetic rubber is Neoprene. Buna Rubber, Styrene Butadiene Rubber (SBR), Butyl Rubber and Thiokol are examples of synthetic rubber.

i. Neoprene Rubber 

The main properties of Neoprene Rubber are not easily flammable, does not easily reacts with oils and solvents and stable at high temperature. Its main uses is in the manufacture of cable insulation, conveyor belt in coal mines, making hose etc.

ii. Buna Rubber 

Buna Rubber is a synthetic rubber with a variety of uses. The two types of Buna Rubber are Buna-S (Styrene-Butadiene Rubber) and Buna-N (Nitrile Rubber). Tires and soles are made from Buna-S, whereas oil seals and gloves are made from Buna-N.

iii. Styrene Butadiene Rubber (SBR)

High frictional force, not easily broken, resists ozone and gets easily oxidised are the properties of Styrene Butadiene Rubber (SBR). Tyres and Foot wears are made from Styrene Butadiene Rubber.

iv. Butyl Rubber

Butyl Rubber has high air impermeability and is used in tire inner tubes and other sealing applications.

v. Thiokol

High elasticity, hardness, doesn't dissolve in organic solvents are the properties of Thiokol. It is used in the manufacture of tanks for storing solvents, making seal and making hoses.

3. Vulcanized Rubber

In 1770, the English chemist Joseph Priestly discovered the substance would rub out pencil marks and named it rubber. It was a sticky material until in 1839 when the American inventor Charles Goodyear accidentally dropped a mixture of sulphur and rubber on a hot stove and found that it was soft and pliable even when cold. The process of heating rubber with sulphur for the betterment of its properties is called vulcanisation. Vulcanisation enhances the following properties of rubber: tensile strength, hardness, elasticity, ability to withstand heat changes. These properties can be varied by changing the quantity of sulphur, temperature and time taken for vulcanisation. Goodyear's discovery began the rubber industry, including the manufacture of rubber tyres. Thomas Hancock got the patent for the invention of vulcanisation.

Rubber Tyre - Although the discovery of vulcanized rubber took place in 1839, it was not until 1887 that the Scottish born inventor John B.Dunlop made his first pneumatic tyre for a biycle. Tyres filled with air are called pneumatic. By 1890 the pneumatic tyre business was in full swing in Ireland. In time the tyres were made for automobiles also. Tubeless tyres and modern materials have greatly improved tyre performance in recent years.

Fibres

A fiber is a strand of a material that resembles hair and is incredibly long compared to its breadth. A fiber's length is at least 100 times its width. Because of their flexibility, fibers can be spun into yarn and used to create textiles. The smallest visible component of any textile product is called a fiber. Manufacturers use fibres in clothing and in such home furnishing as carpets, curtains and upholstery. They also use fibres in many industrial products, including parachutes, fire hoses, insulation and space suits. In medicine, fibres are used to make artificial arteries and tendons. Polycotton is the fabric made from a mixture of cotton and polyester and Polywool is the fabric made from a mixture of polyester and wool fibers.

Types of Fibers:

I. Natural Fibers

These are derived from plants or animals, such as cotton, jute, wool, and silk.

1. Cotton

Cotton is a soft white fibrous substance that surrounds the seeds of a cotton plant. It is used to make textile fibre and thread for sewing. It is the widely produced natural fiber on the planet. Cotton is popularly called as universal fibre.

2. Jute

Jute is a long, soft, shiny fibre that can be spun into coarse, strong threads. It is one of the cheapest natural fibres and is second only to cotton in amount produced and variey of uses.

3. Wool

Wool is a fibre that comes from the fleece of sheep and some other animals. It is made into durable fabrics used in manufacturing blankets, clothing, rugs and other items. 

4. Silk

Silk is a strong, shiny fibre that is used to make cloth. Silk has a natural beauty that few other fibres can equal and is often called the queen of fibres. Silk fibre is made from the cocoons of caterpillars called silkworms.

II. Synthetic Fibers

These are man-made fibers, often produced from petrochemicals, like nylon, rayon, polyester, terylene and acrylic.

1. Nylon

Nylon is a fibre entirely made from chemical processes. It is much stronger than the natural fibre like silk. Nylon is resistant to grease and dirt. Its applications includes the manufacture of parachutes, ropes, stockings etc. Nylon is the first artificial fibre made by humans.

2. Rayon

Rayon is also called as artificial silk. Man made materials in the textile world prior to 1935 were really chemically treated natural products like Rayon. Rayon is a synthetic fibre made from wood pulp or cotton linens. It is widely used for knit and woven textiles for clothing, upholstery, draperies and decorating fabrics.

3. Polyester

Polyesters are manufactured in three basic forms - fibres, films and plastics. Polyester fibres are used to make easy to care for fabrics, which resist fading, wrinkling and mildew. Polyester fibres are also used as the tough cord fabric in tyres. Thin polyester films provide airtight seals on containers and packages.

4. Terylene

Terylene is a synthetic polyester fiber manufactured from polyethylene terephthalate (PET). It is widely used in the textile industry for clothing and other applications.

5. Acrylic

Acrylic is a synthetic fiber made from polyacrylonitrile. It is widely used in clothing, home furnishings and other applications. The example of acrylic fiber is Orlon.

III. Optical Fibers

These are thin strands of glass or plastic that transmit light, used for high-speed communication. 

Cement

Cement is a complex mixture of aluminates and silicates of calcium. In 1824, a British Engineer, Joseph Aspidin made a binding material by mixing lime and silica and firstly it was named as 'portland cement'. The setting of cement is due to the hydration of calcium silicates and calcium aluminates. The mixture of cement, silica and water is called cement mortar. Concrete is reinforced by embedding steel in cement. A suitable site of a cement plant requires proximity to limestone and gypsum.

How is cement manufactured?

The raw materials (calcium carbonate, silica, alumina and iron ore) are ground into a fine powder and mixed in the fixed proportion. This is heated in a furnace at a high temperature (1500°C). Clinkers, which is a complex mixture of calcium silicate and calcium aluminate is formed. Gypsum is added to clinker and the mixture is powdered to make cement.

Cement and Concrete

Cement and Concrete are among the most important building materials. Cement is a fine, grey powder. To form concrete, it is mixed with water and other ingredients like crushed stone, sand, and gravel. As the concrete hardens, the cement and water combine to produce a paste that holds the other ingredients together. Concrete is easy to make, reasonably priced, waterproof, and fireproof. Nearly all the cements used today is portland cement, which is a Hydraulic cement or one that hardens under water. Portland cement is used chiefly to make concrete. Cement and concrete are used to make most of foundations for sky scrapers and big houses. Lime, Silicon, Aluminium, Magnesia, Iron oxide, Calcium Sulphate, Sulphur Trioxide and Alkaline are the chemical composition of cement.

Types of Cement

Cement is mainly classified into two types depending on the hardening and setting mechanism. These are Hydraulic Cement and Non-hydraulic Cement. Depending on the composition and characteristics, cement is classified into several types.

Alcohols

Alcohols are compound which contain one or more hydroxyl groups. Proof is the unit of measuring the purity of alcohol. Lucas test and Victor meyer test are related with Alcohols. Alcohols are classified as primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols. The classification is done in accordance with the carbon atom is bonded to the hydroxyl group. For primary alcohols (1°), carbon atom is bonded to only one other carbon atom,  for secondary alcohols (2°), carbon atom is bonded to two other carbon atom and for tertiary alcohols (3°), carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atom. Most of the alcohols are colourless liquids or even behave as solid at room temperatures. There are several kinds of commercially important alcohols. They are as follows.

1. Ethyl Alcohol (Ethanol)

Ethyl Alcohol (C₂H₅OH) is drunk in liquids. Ethyl Alcohol is also called as Grain Alcohol. Ethanol is used in the preparation of various beverages. The grape spirit is a continuous boiling mixture of ethanol and water. The percentage of alcohol in spirit is 95%. The most alcoholic beverage is whiskey. Whiskey is made from barley. The least alcoholic beverage is beer. Brandy is made from grapes. Russia is the birthplace of vodka.

2. Methyl Alcohol (Methanol)

Methyl Alcohol (CH₃OH) is used in such products as antifreeze or solvents. Methanol is a type of alcohol used for many industrial purposes. It is also called Methyl Alcohol or wood alcohol. Methanol is a clear, colourless organic compound, is flammable and highly poisonous. Drinking it, or inhaling its fumes for prolonged periods, can cause blindness or even death. It is also harmful to the skin. It has a molecular weight of 32.04. It boils at 65°C and freeze at -94°C. At 20°C, its density is 0.7915 grams per cubic centimetre. Methanol mixes readily with water and with such organic compounds as benzene and ether. Some of these mixtures are used in motor vehicles as antifreezes for windshield washer fluids and fuel lines. Such mixtures lower the temperature at which ice forms. Methanol is an alcohol used as a solvent in paint manufacturing and in the manufacture of varnishes and formalin. Hydrogen is a gas that is added with carbon monoxide in the industrial production of methanol.

3. Ethylene Glycol

Ethylene glycol is used as automotive antifreeze, ingredient in hydraulic fluids and in the manufacturing of plastics, paint solvents and printing inks. It is also used as a chemical reagent in the manufacture of alkyd resins, polyesters, synthetic waxes and explosives.

4. Isopropyl alcohol 

It is manufactured by indirect hydration of propylene. It is most commonly used as an industrial solvent and as a rubbing alcohol applied to the skin.

5. Glycerol 

Glycerol, often known as glycerine, is a sweet, syrupy material that contains three alcohol hydroxyl groups. Glycerol was first made as a by-product of soap manufacture, through the process of saponification of fats. 

Other Alcohols

1. Rectified Spirit and Methylated Spirit

Mixture of Ethyl Alcohol (95.87%) and water (4.13%) is known as rectified spirit.  Ethyl Alcohol containing 5 to 10% methyl alcohol is called methylated spirit (denatured spirit). 

2. Absolute Alcohol

99.5% ethanol is called absolute alcohol. The mixture of petrol and absolute alcohol is called as power alcohol.

Glasses

Glass is a super cooled liquid. The major ingredients of glass are sand, lime and soda ash. Borax increases the hardness and refractory character of glass. Glass dissolves in Hydrofluoric acid. Glass is a mixture of silicates. Boron Trioxide is used in the manufacture of glass for heat resistance. 

Different types of Glasses and Uses

1. Soda lime glass (soft glass/silica glass)

The components used in the manufacture of soda lime glass are silica/silicon dioxide (SiO₂), sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃) and calcium carbonate (CaCO₃). They are used as window doors, mirror, bulbs, bottles and jar. Soda lime glass is also called as Soda Glass.

2. Hard glass (heat resistant glass)

The components used in the manufacture of hard glass are silica (SiO₂), potassium carbonate (K₂CO₃) and calcium carbonate (CaCO₃). They are used as laboratory apparatus, factory and kitchen wares. Hard glass is also called as Potash glass.

3. Boro silicate glass

The components used in the manufacture of Boro silicate glass are boric oxide (B₂O₃), aluminium oxide (Al₂O₃), silica (SiO₂) and sodium oxide. They are used as laboratory apparatus, factory and kitchen wares. Thermometer is also made from Boro silicate glass. It is also called as Pyrex Glass.

4. Flint glass (optical glass/lead glass)

The components used in the manufacture of Flint glass are silica (SiO₂), potassium carbonate (K₂CO₃) and lead oxide (PbO). They are used as lenses and prisms.

5. Fibre glass

It is also called fibrous glass, is glass in the form of fine fibres. The fibres may be many times finer than human hair and may look and feel like silk. The flexible glass fibres are stronger than steel and will not burn, stretch, rot or fade. Manufacturer use fibre glass to make a variety of products. Fibre glass is woven into cloth to make such products as curtains and table cloths. The cloth does not change its properties when dyed. It will not wrinkle or soil easily and needs no ironing. Fibre glass textiles are also used for electrical insulation. In bulk form, fibre glass is used for air filters and for heat and sound insulation. Air trapped between the fibres makes it a good insulator. The components used in the manufacture of Fibre glass are silica (SiO₂), sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃) and calcium carbonate (CaCO₃). They are used as industry insulator, vehicles, helmets and furniture.

6. Safety Glass

Safety glass (manufactured by pasting a weightless plastic sheet in between two glass plates) is used in manufacture of bullet proof screens, wind shields etc. In 1902, french chemist Edouard Benedictus dropped a glass flask on a floor; he found that it shattered, but kept its shape. Examining it, he noticed a film to which the glass had adhered. The film came from an evaporation of a collodion solution. Aware that automobile passengers in accidents were injured by flying glass, he developed a coating that made the glass safe. During the 1920's, laminated windshields gained wide acceptance in the American automobile industry.

Dyes

Dye is a chemical compound used to produce long lasting colours in materials. The textile industry uses dyes to colour fibres, yarns and fabrics. Dyes are also used to add artificial color to foods. Manufacturers also dye food, fur, ink, leather, paper, plastics and wood. Until the 1850's, all dyes were made from natural sources, such as various parts of plants or of certain animals. During the late 1800's and early 1900's, chemists developed synthetic dyes. These dyes hold their colour better and cost less to produce than natural dyes. Today, industry uses synthetic dyes almost entirely. In 1856, the English chemist William H.Perkin discovered a process for making dyes from coal tar previously an unwanted by-product of gas lighting. By the 1860's he was making eight different dye colours. Today more than 1000 different types of dyes are produced. Tetracaine is a dye that is harmful to humans. 

Classification of Dyes based on origin 

1. Natural Dyes

Natural dyes are derived from some plants, animals or minerals. The most common natural dyes are vegetable dyes from plant sources like roots, leaves, bark, wood and berries. fungi and lichens are other sources of natural dyes. Alizarin and Indigo are examples of natural dyes.

i. Alizarin

An orange-red crystalline solid, formerly extracted from madder root and used in dying. It is almost insoluble in water but dissolves in alcohol. Alizarin is now made from anthracene and yields a wide variety of dyes.

ii. Indigo

Indigo is a deep blue dye used to colour cotton and wool. It is also called indigotin. In past times, this dye was taken from the indigo plant, a member of the pea family that grows chiefly in india. Synthetic indigo is made from aniline, a coal-tar product. 

2. Synthetic Dyes

The most common dyes available today are synthetic dyes. They are used in various products like paper, food, fabric, wood etc. It is because, they are cheap, bright, more colour fast and easy to use. Acid Dyes, Azo Dyes, Mordant Dyes and Basic Dyes are examples of Synthetic Dyes.

i. Acid Dyes

Acid dyes are anionic, water soluble dyes. Salts of chromium, iron, aluminium, tin or other metals are used with acid dyes. azo, anthraquinone or triphenyl methane-based are examples of Acid Dyes. Common mordants including salts of chromium, iron, aluminium, tin or other metals can be used with acid dyes. 

ii. Azo Dyes

Azo dyes consists of 60 to 70 percent of all dyes used in food and textile industries. They are widely used to in leather, textile and some foods.

iii. Mordant Dyes

Mordant is a chemical that combines with dyes to prevent them from dissolving easily. The dye alone might wash out, but the compound formed by the dye and the mordant will not, so the colour is long lasting.

iv. Basic Dyes

Basic dyes are cationic, water-soluble dyes. It is mainly used in acrylic fibers and find some use for wool and silk. Acid mordants like Tannic acid, lactic acid and oliec acid combines with basic dyes.

Food, Health and Nutrition

Chemicals in Food

1. Artificial Sweetening Agents

Saccharin is the first artificial sweetener. Saccharin is an artificial sweetener that is approximately 550 times sweeter than sugar cane. Ortho Sulphobenzimide is the other name of Saccharin. It is a synthetic substance used in food and beverages in place of sugar. Artificial sweeteners are sweeter and have fewer calories than sucrose. Sucralose is an artificial sweetener that is a trichloro variant of sucrose. Aspartame is an artificial sweetener that is 100 times sweeter than sugar cane and about 200 times as sweet as sugar. A number of countries including USA and UK have approved its use. Alitame is a more stable artificial sweetener than Aspartame. Alitame is 2000 times sweeter than sucrose.

2. Food Preservatives

Food Preservatives are those that prevent food from spoiling due to the growth of microorganisms. Examples of Food Preservatives are Salt, Sugar, Vegetable Oils, Sodium Benzoate etc.

3. Food Additives

It is any chemical that food manufacturers intentionally add to one of their products. Some additives increase a food's nutritional value. Others improve the colour, flavour or texture of foods. Still others keep foods from spoiling. Common food additives include iodine, put into salt to prevent goitre and baking powder added to dough to make it rise. Some food additives come from other foods. Scientists also create many synthetic additives in the laboratory. Some people consider food additives dangerous to their health. But many of these chemicals occur naturally in foods that people have eaten for centuries.

4. Antioxidants in Food

These help to preserve food by reducing the action of oxygen on it. Example - Butylated Hydroxytoluene (BHT), Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA).

Chemicals used in food and their uses

1. Tartrazine - to give yellow colour

2. Erythrosine - to give red colour

3. Phosphoric Acid - to get a sour taste in artificial drinks

4. Allyl Hexanoate - to get pineapple smell

Artificial Sweetening Agents

Artificial sweetening agents are chemicals that sweeten food. Unlike natural sweeteners, they do not increase the body's calorie intake. C. Fahlberg, a student of American scientist Ira Remsen, found the first artificial sweetener in his lab. After creating a commercial synthesis, he filed for a patent in 1885 and called the product saccharin. Compared to sucrose, artificial sweeteners are sweeter and have fewer calories. People with diabetes and those on weight loss diets frequently utilize artificial sweeteners. According to experiments, those who consume significant amounts of artificial sweetness may be endangering their health. The United States and the United Kingdom banned the artificial sweetener Cyclamates in 1970. Examples of artificial sweeteners include alitame, sucrose, aspartame, and saccharin. The following is an explanation of them.

1. Saccharin

Saccharin is a synthetic sweetner. Petroleum and toluene are used to make it. It has no food value and no carbohydrates, yet it is roughly 300 times sweeter than table sugar. Additionally, saccharin leaves a bitter aftertaste. People with diabetes and those on weight loss diets frequently use saccharin as a substitute for sugar. It is manufactured as a liquid, powder, or small tablets. Saccharin is used by manufacturers to make low-calorie soft beverages, sugar-free chewing gum, puddings, jams, jellies, and salad dressings. According to tests, saccharin may occasionally result in cancer. Johns Hopkins University scientist Constantin Fahlberg made the discovery of saccharin in 1879. From 1900 onwards, it has been offered for sale commercially.

2. Aspartame

Aspartame was discovered in 1879. Aspartyl phenylalanine-1-methyl ester is the chemical name of this dipeptide methyl ester. It is frequently used in many different foods and as a tabletop sweetener. It loses its sweetness and breaks down into amino acids when heated, therefore baked foods cannot use it. It is exclusively utilized in cold foods and soft drinks because it becomes unstable at cooking temperatures. Aspartame is an artificial sweetener that is 100 times sweeter than sugar cane and about 200 times as sweet as sugar. A number of countries including USA and UK have approved its use. Diabetics Patients can use Aspartame.

3. Sucralose

Sucralose is an artificial sweetener that is a trichloro variant of sucrose. Sucralose is a better alternative to sugar and an artificial sweetener. Since the body cannot break down most of the ingested sucralose, it is noncaloric in nature.

4. Alitame

Alitame is a more stable artificial sweetener than Aspartame. Alitame is 2000 times sweeter than sucrose.

Nutrition - Definition, Types, Examples

The process by which organisms take in and utilize food is called nutrition. The study of nutrition is called nutritional science or trophology. Essential Nutrients are elements in food that are essential for health and maintaining body functions. These essential nutrients are divided into macronutrients (carbohydrate, protein and fat), micronutrients (vitamin and mineral), and water. A balanced diet is one that includes all the nutrients the body needs in the proper amounts for growth and maintenance. Normally a balanced diet should provide about 2400 calories per day for a normal adult. Milk is an example for balanced diet. The headquarters of National Institute of Nutrition is located at Hyderabad.

Types of Essential Nutrients

1. Carbohydrate

It is one of the three main classes of nutrients essential to the body. The others are fats and proteins. Carbohydrates include all sugars and starches and also some other substances such as cellulose and glycogen. They are the main source of energy for animals and plants. They are used by the body as fuel. Foods high in carbohydrate content include bananas, bread, potatoes and rice. Carbohydrates consist of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen atoms arranged in 'building blocks' called Saccharides, Glycogen, or animal starch, is the chief form of stored carbohydrate in animals.

2. Protein

Protein is one of the three main classes of food that essential to the body. The others are carbohydrates and fats. Proteins exist in every cell and are essential to plant and animal life. Plants build proteins from materials in the air and the soil. Human beings and animals obtain proteins from the foods they eat. Foods that are high in protein content include cheese, eggs, fish, meat and milk. In 1838, a Dutch chemist Gerardus Johannes Mulder introduced the word 'protein'. In 1907 Emil Hermann Fischer, a German chemist built a protein molecule made up of 18 amino acid.

3. Fat

Fats are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. Major sources of fats are butter, ghee, oils, ground nuts, almonds etc. One gram of fat yields 9.3 calories of energy. Fat is any of a group of chemical compounds found in both animals and plants. Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen make up fats. They belong to one of the three major dietary groups that the body needs. The others are carbohydrates and proteins. An animal fat or plant that is liquid at room temperature is called an oil. Alcohols, chloroform, ether, and petrol can dissolve fats and oils, but water cannot dissolve them. Some fats are hard, while some other fats are soft. Fats in butter, lard and margarine are soft at room temperature.

4. Vitamin

The Englishman Sir Frederick Gowland Hopkins is credited with the discovery of idea of vitamin concept. He discovered in 1906 that food contains important elements called vitamins other than carbohydrates, minerals, fats, proteins, and water. Hopkins shared the 1929 Nobel Prize in medicine and physiology for his discovery of growth stimulating vitamins. Polish born Casimir Funk (US) made great advances in 1912 when he hypothesized that certain diseases such as beriberi, scurvy, pellagra and rickets are caused by deficiencies of nutrients he called 'vitamins'.

5. Mineral

Mineral is a homogenenous inorganic material needed for body. These control the metabolism of body. The important minerals in our body are sodium, potassium, calcium, phosphorous, iron, iodine, magnesium, zinc, copper and cobalt.

6. Water

Human get water by drinking. Water is the important component of our body. 65 to 75 percent weight of the body is water. Although humans have used water since the dawn of civilization, its exact chemical composition was not known until 1784, when the English chemist Henry Cavendish discovered that it consisted of hydrogen and oxygen. Later he proved the exact ratio of the two gases.

Carbohydrates -  Definition, Type, Examples

Carbohydrates are organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen which constitute sugars (starch, cellulose, glucose etc) and supply calories for body activity. One gram of carbohydrate provides 4.2 calories of energy. The ratio of hydrogen to oxygen in the Carbohydrate is 2:1. The sources of carbohydrates are rice, wheat, honey, sugar, potato, carrot, banana, bread etc. Deficiency of carbohydrates causes weight loss and weakness. Based on the number of sugar units they can be classified into, Monosaccharides, Disaccharides, Oligosaccharides and Polysaccharides. Starch, Sugar, Cellulose, Glucose, Inulin, Glycogen and Chitin are various types of Carbohydrates.

Types of Carbohydrates

1. Starch

Glucose is a basic sugar that plants use to make starch. The most significant dietary supply for higher animals is a polysaccharide reserve found in plants. Grains and tubers contain starch in the form of starch. Iodine Test is the test related to finding the presence of starch. When starch reacts with iodine solution, it produces a deep blue color.

2. Sugars

Since sugars are in their most basic form, they are also known as simple carbohydrates. Sugars are classified into monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides.

i. Monosaccharides - Also called as simple sugars. Examples of monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. 

ii. Disaccharides - Also called as double sugars. Examples of disaccharides include Sucrose (Table Sugar), Lactose and Maltose.

iii. Polysaccharides - Also called as complex carbohydrates, which are chains of glucose molecules. Examples of polysaccharides include starch and glycogen.

3. Cellulose

The most abundant organic material in plants is cellulose, which is found only in plants. It is the main component of the cell wall of plants. Cellulose is totally absent in animal cell. Cellulose, though not digested has great importance in human nutrition. It is major constituent of fibre.

4. Glucose

Glucose is a type of sugar also called as grape sugar. Glucose is a product of photosynthesis in green plants and is the chief source of energy for most living organisms. The presence of glucose in any subsance can be identified using benedict test. If sugar is present in the Benedict test, the result is a brick red color.

5. Inulin

Inulin not a sugar itself, and is often used as a sugar substitute due to its prebiotic properties and potential health benefits. 

6. Glycogen

Glycogon is the carbohydrate reserve in animal hence it is often reffered to as animal starch. It is present in high concentration in liver, followed by muscle, brain etc. Glycogen is also found in plants that do not possess chlorophyll.

7. Chitin

Chitin is a structural polysaccharide found in exoskeleton of some invertebrates. eg: insects and crustaceans.

Sugars - Definition, Types, Examples

Sugar is a food widely used as a sweetener. People sprinkle sugar on such foods as grapefruit and cereal to improve their taste. All green plants produce sugar. But most sugar that people use comes from sugar cane and sugar beets, which produce a sugar called sucrose. Other sources of sugar include cornstarch, milk, maple syrup and honey. Sugars are also referred to as simple carbohydrates because they are in their most basic form. Monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides are three types.

1. Monosaccharides

Monosaccharides are also called as simple sugars. Examples of monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose.

i. Glucose

Glucose is a type of sugar. Glucose is a product of photosynthesis. Honey and fruits like grapes and figs contain a lot of glucose. Pure glucose is a white crystal. It is about three fourths as sweet as sucrose. Its chemical formula is C6H12O6. Glucose belongs to a class of foods called carbohydrates. It is the most numerous of the monosaccharides, or simplest carbohydrates. Because of its simple chemical structure, glucose can be absorbed directly into the blood from the intestine. Most complex carbohydrates, including sucrose and starch, must be broken down into monosaccharides before being absorbed into the blood. Glucose is made commercially from starch.

ii. Fructose

Fructose is the sweetest natural sugar. It is a sugar produced by nearly all fruits and by many vegetables. Fructose also known as fruit sugar is nearly twice as sweet as sucrose. Fructose is used to sweeten such food products as diet foods, gelatin desserts, jams, jellies, soft drinks and syrups. It is the chief sweetener in honey. Foods that contain fructose taste as sweet as similar foods made with sucrose, but they may have fewer calories, fructose gives ice cream and sweets a smooth texture. It also absorbs moisture readily and so helps to keep baked goods from becoming stable. Fructose is produced commercially as a liquid, powder or tablet. Food processors use fructose primarily in the form of syrup prepared from maize.

iii. Galactose

Galactose is a simple sugar that is as sweet as glucose, and about 65% as sweet as sucrose. It is usually found in nature combined with other sugars.

2. Disaccharides

Disaccharides are also called as double sugars. Examples of disaccharides include Sucrose (Table Sugar), Lactose and Maltose.

i. Sucrose (Table Sugar)

Sucrose, generally known as cane sugar, is the primary carbohydrate produced during photosynthesis. It is carried into plants' storage organs.

ii. Lactose

Lactose is most generally referred to as milk sugar. Lactose of milk is the most important carbohydrate in the nutrition of young mammals.

iii. Maltose

Maltose is the chemical term for malt sugar. The formation of maltose is the first step in the digestion of starchy foods. The enzyme ptyalin in saliva changes starch into maltose. Other enzymes split the maltose into glucose. Commercially, the enzyme diastase in malt changes starch into maltose. Fermentation changes maltose into alcohol. This is recovered by distillation. Maltose is used for sweetening some foods.

3. Polysaccharides

Longer chains of monosaccharides and disaccharides are not regarded as sugars and are called polysaccharides. Polysaccharides are also called as complex carbohydrates, which are chains of glucose molecules. Examples of polysaccharides include starch and glycogen.

i. Starch

Glucose is a basic sugar that plants use to make starch. The most important food source for higher animals is a polysaccharide reserve found in plants. Grains and tubers both contain starch..

ii. Glycogen

Glycogen is a tasteless, odourless white powder. Glycogen is a carbohydrate. It is made up of basic sugar units called glucose that are linked together in branching chains. Glycogen is produced and stored in the liver and muscles. It is composed of excess starch and sugars in the body. These are first converted to glucose. Excess glucose is then changed into glycogen. Glycogen is often called animal starch. It is a reserve food and is easily reconverted to glucose.

Proteins -  Definition, Types, Examples

Proteins are highly complex nitrogenous compound found in all living organisms. They form the structural and functional basis of life. Proteins are necessary for the growth and repair of bodily tissues. They also offer energy when calories are low. Protein is composed of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen. Proteins are incredibly large molecules composed of monomers known as amino acids. Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. There are twenty standard amino acids. Protein-rich foods include milk, fish, meat, eggs, nuts and dal. Soyabean seeds posses highest percentage of proteins (30-35%). Protein deficiency causes kwashiorkar - skin cracks and become scaly, abdomen swells, hair become reddish. Deficiency of protein and carbohydrate results in Marasmus.

Types of Proteins

There are seven types of proteins. They are antibodies, contractile proteins, enzymatic proteins, hormonal proteins, structural proteins, storage proteins and transport proteins

1. Antibodies

A protein produced by animal plasma cells as a result of the presence of an antigen. Antibody production is maintained by contact with the antigen; subsequent exposure to the antigen produces a greater antibody responses which provides the basis of immunity. Antibodies contribute to the body's resistance to infection and are responsible for the rejection of foreign tissue or organ transplants. Antibodies are an example of proteins that attach to one specific type of molecule. 

2. Contractile Proteins 

Contractile Proteins are responsible for the function of muscle contraction and movement. Cell cytoplasm is a colloidal network made up of contractile proteins.

3. Enzymatic Proteins

The most important proteins are the enzymes. Protein present in hair, skin and nails is keratin. Protein present in silk is fibroin. The first pure enzyme to be crystallized was Jackbean urease, prepared by James Batcheller Sumner (US) in 1926. Sumner's work proved that enzymes are proteins and that proteins can act catalytically. Enzymatic proteins are enzymes that speed up chemical reactions in our body.

4. Hormonal Proteins

Hormonal Proteins are messenger proteins that assist coordinate various body functions. Growth factors, Testosterone and Cortisol are examples of Hormonal Proteins.

5. Structural Proteins

Structural Proteins provide support in our body. They maintains and protects the structure of the our body. For example, the proteins in our connective tissues, such as collagen and elastin.

6. Storage Proteins

Storage Proteins store metal ions such as iron in our body. Casein is a storage protein found in egg whites. Examples of other storage proteins include Ferritin, which is a storage protein that stores iron.

7. Transport Proteins

Transport Proteins are carrier proteins that carry molecules from one place to another in the body. Hemoglobin and Cytochromes are examples of Transport proteins. The respiratory protein hemoglobin transports oxygen from the lung to body organs and tissues. Cytochromes functions as an electron carrier protein.

Vitamins - Types, Food Sources, Deficiency Diseases

Unlike carbohydrates, proteins and fats, vitamins do not provide calories, but they help the body to use the energy from food. Most vitamins cannot be made in our body. So they must be acquired from food. Vitamins A, D, E, K are fat soluble whereas Vitamin B complex and C are water soluble. Milk is a rich source of all vitamins except Vitamin C. Overdose of water soluble vitamin does not cause any harm but accumulation of fat soluble vitamin can be toxic. It can lead to hypervitaminosis. Even though the amount of vitamins required are small compared to other nutrients, it is very necessary. Otherwise several deficiency diseases are caused in the body. Vitamin D (in skin) and Vitamin K (in liver) can be synthesized by our body.

Different Types of Vitamins

1. Vitamin A

Vitamin A also called as Retinol is a fat soluble vitamin, needed for healthy vision, bone growth, reproduction and the immune system. The best food source for this vitamin is carrots and yellow and green vegetables. Other sources include butter, milk, fish, soya milk etc. The deficiency of Vitamin A causes Xerophthalmia (drying of cornea and ulceration), Night blindness (inability to see in the dark) and Keratinization of epithelium (dry skin and hair). Elmer Vernon McCollum (US) and Marguerite Davis (US) found vitamin A in butter and egg yolk in 1913. 

2. Vitamin B

Edward Vedder (US) and Robert Williams (US) are given credit for being the first to detect water-soluble vitamin B in 1912 as an antineuritic substance effective in curing pigeons of neuritis, a disease similar to that of beri-beri in humans. Three years after the discovery Elmer Vernon McCollum (US) and Marguerite Davis (US) labelled it 'water-soluble B', which british biochemist Jack Cecil Drummond changed to 'Vitamin B' in 1920. Vitamin B complex includes B₁, B₂, B₃, B₅, B₆, B₇, B₉ and B₁₂.

3. Vitamin B₁

Vitamin B1 also called as Thiamine, is a water soluble vitamin helps to break down carbohydrates, fats and alcohol. The best food source for this vitamin is whole grains, yeast, egg, potatoes, pork, nuts etc. The deficiency of Vitamin B1 causes beri-beri (partial paralysis of skeletal muscles and digestive disturbances).

4. Vitamin B₂

Vitamin B2 also called as Riboflavin, is a water soluble vitamin needed to extract energy from fat, protein, carbohydrate in food. Riboflavin is abundantly present in milk. So it is also known as lactoflavin. The best food source is cereals, legumes, milk, egg, meat, fish, spinach etc. The deficiency is that it is characterized by corneal ulceration and cracking of skin (especially around the lips).

5. Vitamin B₃

Vitamin B3 also called as Niacin, is a water soluble vitamin involved in fat metabolism. The best food source are lean meat, milk, eggs, nuts, whole grains etc. The deficiency diseases are Pellagra (characterized by dermatitis, skin inflammation), diarrhoea and dementia (loss of intellectual function).

6. Vitamin B₅

Vitamin B5 also called as pantothenic acid, is a water soluble vitamin, supports blood cell production and the conversion of food you eat into energy. The best food source are meat, milk, eggs, nuts, whole grains, and some vegetables. The deficiency diseases are fatigue, irritability, and digestive problems.

6. Vitamin B₆

Vitamin B6 also called as Pyridoxine, is a water soluble vitamin. The best food source are fish, pork, eggs, spinach, cheese, cereals and bananas. The deficiency disease is Epileptiform seizures observed in children. Its symptoms include dermatitis of eyes, nose and mouth; retarded growth.

7. Vitamin B₇

Vitamin B7 also called as Biotin, is a water soluble vitamin. The best food source are meat, eggs, nuts, seeds, legumes, fruits, cereals and vegetables. The deficiency diseases causes the symptoms of hair loss, brittle nails, skin rashes, and neurological issues.

8. Vitamin B₉

Vitamin B9 also called as Folic Acid, is a water soluble vitamin. It is essential for the normal formation of the red blood cells, protein metabolism, growth and cell division. The best food source are yeast, green leafy vegetables, milk, cereals and nuts. The deficiency disease is megaloblastic anemia (production of abnormally large red blood cells).

9. Vitamin B₁₂

Vitamin B12 also called as Cyanocobalamin, is a water soluble vitamin, involved in the production of red blood cells, in cell metabolism and in nerve function. The best food source are meat, eggs, milk and cheese. It is the only vitamin containing cobalt, which is absent in vegetables. The deficiency diseases are pernicious anemia and neuro-psychiatric abnormalities (memory loss, mood and personality changes).

10. Vitamin C

Vitamin C also called as Ascorbic acid, is a water soluble vitamin. It is easily destroyed by heat and light. So vitamin C rich food should be stored in cool, dark place and prepared and cooked as quickly as possible. It is essential for disease resistance and wound healing. The best food source are citrus fruits, tomatoes, cabbage, spinach, potatoes, broccoli etc. The deficiency disease is scurvy and its symptoms are swollen gums, teeth loss and bleeding gums.

11. Vitamin D

Vitamin D also called as Calciferol, is a fat soluble vitamin. It controls the absorption of calcium and phosphorous, which are essential for bone growth and development. The best food source are fish liver oils, egg yolk, milk, butter. Also synthesized in the human body by the skin under the influence of sunlight. The deficiency diseases are rickets (in infants), bones become soft (deformed) and Osteomalacia (demineralization of bones).

12. Vitamin E

Vitamin E also called as Tocopherol, is a fat soluble vitamin. It protects red blood cells and is important in reproduction. The best food sources are wheat germ, fresh nuts, seed oils, green leafy vegetables, avocados etc. Its deficiency not reported in humans, occurring only in premature babies (infertility).

13. Vitamin K

Vitamin K also called as Phylloquinones, is a fat soluble vitamin. It is involved in blood clotting. The best food sources are liver, spinach, cauliflower, green tomatoes, pork etc. Its deficiency disease is Hemorrhage (Subcutaneous and intramuscular bleedings due to delayed clotting time).

Information Communication Technology

■ ICT : Nature and Scope of ICT

■ ICT in day today life

■ ICT and industry

■ ICT and Governance – various Government schemes promoting use of ICT

■ e-Governance Programmes and Services

■ Netiquettes

■ Cyber Security concerns

■ National Cyber Crime Policy

■ Management Information System (MIS) 

■ Artificial Intelligence – benefits and impacts

■ Robotics

■ Recent Communication Technology

■ Information Communication Technology (ICT) Applications

■ Near Field Communication Technology

■ WIRE Communication

■ Networking Devices

■ Quantum Communications and Technologies Based on Quantum Mechanics

■ Nanotechnology in Telecommunication

■ Wireless Communications

■ The Radio-frequency Spectrum

■ Mobile Network

■ Generation of Internet Technology

■ Telecommunication

■ Telecommunication in India

■ Modern Telecommunication System

■ Digital Television

■ Cable Television

Energy Requirement and Efficiency

■ India's existing energy needs and deficit

■ India's energy resources and dependence

■ Renewable and Non-renewable energy resources

■ Energy Policy of India – Govt.Policies and Programmes

■ Energy Security and Nuclear Policy of India

Nuclear Energy & Clean Energy Technology

■ Nuclear Reactors

■ Nuclear Power

■ India's Nuclear Energy Programme

■ India Three Stage Nuclear Programme

■ IAEA

■ Clean Energy Technology

■ Hydrogen

■ Fuel Cells

■ Solar Energy

Biotechnology & Modern Biological Applications

■ Biotechnology

■ Recombinant DNA Technology

■ Applications of Biotechnology

■ Bioinformatics

■ Genomics

■ Transcriptomics

■ Proteomics

■ Metabolomics

■ Fluxomics

■ DNA Sequencing

■ Next-generation Sequencing (Ngs)

■ The Human Genome Project

■ Crispr-Cas 9 Technology

■ Cloning

■ Mitochondrial Replacement Therapy

Environmental Science

■ Issues and concerns related to environment

■ Legal aspects for the protection of environment

■ Policies and Treaties for the protection of environment at National and International level

■ Environment protection for sustainable development

■ Biodiversity – its importance and concerns

■ Climate change

■ International initiatives (Policies, Protocols) and India's commitment

■ Western Ghats, Features, Characteristics and issues

■ Forest and wildlife 

■ Legal framework for Forest and Wildlife Conservation in India

■ Environmental Hazards

■ Pollution

■ Carbon Emission

■ Global Warming

■ National action plans on climate change and Disaster Management

■ Developments in Biotechnology, Green Technology and Nanotechnology

To be Continued